Gender - Paper 3 Flashcards

Question

What are the limitations of Kohlberg's theory of gender development?

Answer 1

- Contradictory evidence: Martin and Little (1990) found that children under the age of four, who showed no signs of gender stability or constancy still demonstrated strong sex typed behaviour and attitudes. Furthermore Bussey and Bandura found that children as young as 4 said they felt good about playing with gender-appropriate toys and bad about playing with gender-inappropriate toys. These findings dispute Kohlberg’s claim that children only begin to demonstrate gender-appropriate behaviour once they reach the gender constancy stage and is more in line with gender-schema theory which suggests that children absorb gender-appropriate information as soon as they identify themselves as either male or female. - Methodological problems with Kohlberg’s theory. Kohlberg’s theory was developed using interviews with children who were as young as 2 years. Despite the questions being tailored towards that particular age group, the children may have lacked the vocabulary needed to express their understanding of gender. This may have lowered the validity of the interviews as the children may not have not been able to express what they truly felt and therefore the findings are not representative of the children’s understanding of gender and could lower the validity of Kohlberg’s stages. - Evidence to suggest that boys tend to show stronger sex-typing than girls with males being less flexible than females. These differences are difficult to explain by Kohlberg’s theory because if gender development was purely due to maturation there would be no difference in male and female gender identity. This suggests the less flexibility is due to socialisation, and psychologists have found that fathers, in particular, react more negatively towards their sons’ feminine play than mothers did, suggesting environmental influences such as this could be responsible for boys being less flexible and showing greater resistance to opposite-sex activities. Therefore social explanations may be a better explanation of gender development than cognitive.

Answer 2

A gender schema is an organized set of attitudes, beliefs and values stored in memory about gender behaviour. A child’s thinking and understanding about experiences determine the development of gender schemas and therefore gender development. Gender schema theory proposes that we learn gender schemas about what is appropriate and inappropriate gender behaviour through our observations and interactions with others. These gender schemas develop from about 2 years of age, after basic gender identity is established and children are most interested in and therefore focus on schemas which match their own in-group gender identity and avoid out-group gender schemas. In-group schemas develop concerning expectations and attitudes about one’s own gender and out-group schemas about the other gender. Gender schemas provide the basis for what is perceived to be appropriate and inappropriate gender role behaviour. Gender schemas determine: what information children pay attention to; how children interpret behaviour and social situations and what children remember from their experiences. Gender schemas change and become more complex as a child’s cognitive abilities develop. By adolescence gender schemas become more flexible as children understand that gender roles are socially constructed and many teenagers become less sex-typed and more androgynous.

Answer 3

Martin and Halverson found that children under the age of six were more likely to remember photographs of gender consistent behaviours than gender inconsistent behaviours when tested a week later. Children tended to change the sex of the person carrying out the gender – inconsistent activities in the photographs when asked to recall them which supports that memory is distorted to fit in with existing gender schemas. Further research to support comes from Martin and Little (1990). They found that children under the age of four, who showed no signs of gender stability or constancy still demonstrated strong sex typed behaviour and attitudes. This therefore supports the gender schema theory whilst contradicting Kohlberg’s theory.

Answer 4

- Key assumptions are unsupported. The theory suggests that it should be possible to change a child’s schemas and that by adolescence gender schemas become more flexible however; this has shown to be very difficult. For example many people have strong views regarding sex equality and division of labour in the home but this often fails to show in their day to day behaviour. Therefore, this demonstrates that attitudes do not necessarily lead to behaviour yet the gender schema theory assumes that child’s attitudes (schemas) do affect their behaviour. - Criticised for exaggerating the importance of schemas. The theory does not pay sufficient attention to social factors such as the roles of parental influence and the role of reward and punishment. For example, a girl may be punished for being assertive and dominant whereas a boy may be praised for showing these qualities. Therefore it would be inappropriate to conclude that schemas alone are responsible for gender role development and that other factors should be taken into consideration when trying to explain such a complex behaviour. - It has been suggested that the gender schema theory and Kohlberg’s theory can actually be seen to complement one another as oppose to being in direct conflict. Researchers have argued that gender schemas and gender constancy may be two different processes. Gender schemas explain how information is organised and stored in memory whereas gender constancy related to motivation. Once a child has established their concept of what it means to be a boy or girl they are then motivated to find out more. It would therefore perhaps be more appropriate to look to combining these gender theories to provide a wider understanding of gender development.

Answer 5

- Prephallic children - Oedipus complex - Electra complex - Identification and internalisation

Answer 6

Children have no concept of gender identity prior to the phallic stage. Freud described these pre-phallic children as bisexual, in the sense that they are neither masculine nor feminine. Gender identity begins to form in the phallic stage, when the focus of pleasure switches to the genitals, and the child experiences the Oedipus complex (boys) or the Electra complex (girls). Resolving these conflicts effectively is vital for healthy gender development.

Answer 7

Boys experience the Oedipus complex whereby they desire their mother. They then see their father as a rival and as a result, develop murderous hatred for their father who stands in the way of the boy possessing his mother. However, the boy recognises that the father is more powerful than he is and fears he may be castrated by the father for his feelings towards the mother. This is known as castration anxiety. To resolve the conflict, the boy gives up his love for his mother and begins to identify with his father. It is through this identification with that the boy internalises his father’s gender identity.

Answer 8

Girls experience the electra complex; upon discovering she doesn’t have a penis, the girl develops penis envy blaming the mother for a lack of a penis, believing that she was castrated by her. The girl also sees the mother as a love rival standing in the way of the father. Over time, the girls comes to accept that she will never have a penis and substitutes penis envy for the desire to have children. This reduces the anger towards her mother, causing her to identify with her mother and internalise her feminine gender behaviours.

Answer 9

For both sexes, identification with the same-sex parent is the means of resolving their respective complexes. A boy will give up his desire for his mother and identify instead with his father, likewise the girl passively identifies with her mother. Identification lead to internalisation. This is the processing of adopting the attitudes, values and the gender identity of the same-sex parent. A boy will internalise the views and behaviour of his father and likewise the girl does the same with her mother, assuming their values as the child's own

Answer 10

In a study of 49 women by Wiszewska et al (2007), the precise dimensions of their fathers' faces were mapped out (distance between eyes, size of nose and so on). The women were then shown pictures of 15 men's faces and Wiszewska found that if the women had a good relationship with their father, they were significantly more likely to pick out the picture which resembled his dimensions. This supports the Freudian concept of the Electra complex and the view that women are attracted to the opposite sex parent.

Answer 11

Direct reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement, identification and meditational processes

Answer 12

- Case studies (e.g. Little Hans). This research lacks validity. Based on one case, we cannot be certain that all young boys suffer from castration anxiety. Freud’s theory implies that the sons of very strict and harsh fathers should go on to develop stronger gender identity than other boys. This is because the high levels of castration anxiety experienced by these boys should produce stronger identification with the aggressor. However, this is not supported by evidence and in fact, the reverse would seem to be true – boys with more liberal (easy-going) fathers, tend to be more secure in their masculine identity (Blakemore and Hill, 2008) Lack of application to non-nuclear families Freud’s theory relies on a child having two parents of different genders. This implies that raising a child in a non-nuclear family, would have a negative effect on the child’s gender development. However, evidence does not support this assumption. For example, Susan Golombok (1983) demonstrated how children from single-parent families went on to develop normal gender identities. Similarly, Richard Green (1978) studied 37 children who were raised by gay or transgender parents, and discovered that only one had a ‘non-typical’ gender identity. Female gender development is poorly explained Freud wrote extensively about the Oedipus complex and focussed much more on male gender identity, admitting that that women were a mystery to him. As such, Freud’s theory of female gender identity, especially the notion of penis envy, has been heavily criticised for reflecting the patriarchal Victorian era in which Freud lived. Indeed, the feminist psychoanalyst Karen Horney argues that a more powerful emotion than penis envy is the male experience of ‘womb envy’ – a reaction to women’s ability to give life. Furthermore, Horney argues that Freud’s theory of female gender development is flawed as it is founded on the idea that women desire to be like men illustrating Alpha Bias. Disagreement over gender identity Freud argued that gender identity is formed at the end of the phallic stage (age 6), when the child identifies with the same sex parent. Prior to this, the child is described as bisexual, neither male nor female. This is in contrast to other explanations of gender development, such as Kohlberg’s theory, which suggests that the child’s concept of gender develops gradually across a number of stages, which coincide with increased cognitive abilities. Freud failed to take into account the growing cognitive abilities of the child, therefore, his theory lacks validity.

Answer 13

Children are more likely to be reinforced (praised) for demonstrating behaviour that is gender appropriate. The way in which boys and girls are encouraged to show gender-appropriate behaviour is called differential reinforcement. It is through this differential reinforcement that a child learns their gender identity (I am a boy). Behaviours that are reinforced are then imitated. A child is more likely to imitate behaviour that has been reinforced (rewarded). This reinforcement may be direct or indirect.

Answer 14

If the consequences of another person’s behaviour are pleasant, that behaviour is more likely to be imitated by a child. If the consequence of the behaviour leads to punishment, behaviour is less likely to be imitated.

Answer 15

This is the process whereby a child attaches themselves to a role model. Role models tend to be attractive, high status and usually, the same sex as the child. Give some examples of same sexed role model you had whilst growing up. Include people that were within your immediate environment as well as those from the media: When a child imitates the behaviour of a role model, this is called modelling. E.g., when a little girl copies her mother setting the table, or feeds her doll using a toy bottle, she is modelling the behaviour she has witnessed.

Answer 16

Attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. Parents

Answer 17

Smith and Lloyd (1978) dressed 4-6 month old babies in either girl’s clothes or boy’s clothes. They found that adults interacted with the babies differently. For example, when it was assumed the baby was a boy the adults selected a hammer shaped rattle and were more adventurous and active with the baby. When the adults believed the baby was a girl they reinforced passive behaviour and selected a cuddly doll to play with the child. This study suggests that gender behaviour is reinforced at an early age, supporting the SLT. Changing views regarding stereotypically masculine and feminine behaviours in our society can be explain by a shift in cultural norms and the way that these new forms of acceptable gender behaviour have been reinforced. As there has been no corresponding change in people’s basis biology within the same period (e.g. males still have XY chromosomes) such a shift is much better explained by SLT than the biological approach.

Answer 18

Critics have argued that SLT does not provide an adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age. For example, a toddler is incapable of imitating a parent vacuuming the living room because they are not strong enough to push a vacuum cleaner. However, the general implication is that modelling of gender-appropriate behaviour can occur at any age. The influence of age and development on learning behaviour is not a factor considered by SLT and this may be a limitation of the explanation. Contradictory Evidence Explain how the SLT is contradicted by the David Reimer case study (make sure you do not lose focus here. Only explain HOW this case study contradicts the SLT. Also note that the SLT fits with Dr. Money’s theory of neutrality).

Answer 19

Research into the effects of the media on gender roles provides support for the social learning theory explanation of gender. This is because it clearly illustrates the effects of learning through imitation and observation on gender role behaviour. The media provide role models with whom children may identify and want to imitate. A study of TV adverts by Furnham and Farragher (2000) found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional context e.g., the company boss, whereas women were often seen in domestic setting, e.g., child rearing. This suggests that the media may play a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes concerning male and female behaviour. McGhee and Frueh (1980) conducted research on the amount of TV children watch and their knowledge of sex-role stereotypes. They found that children aged 6-12 who watched more than 25 hours of TV a week held more sex-stereotyped perceptions than those who watched 10 hours or less. This study suggests that the media is a source of information for sex-role stereotypes, and was especially seen for male teenagers. However, correlational research, cannot establish whether the TV viewing causes sex-role stereotypes. Additionally, is cannot be ascertained how this increase in knowledge affects the behaviour of the children. Counter-stereotypes In recent years there have been many examples of counter-stereotypes in the media, such as the Disney movie Brave, which challenges traditional gender roles and Marvel’s top selling movie, Captain Marvel, using strong female role models in the media. It is hoped that these counter-stereotypes may help in reducing gender stereotyping and gender discrimination in society. Also, the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) has toughened rules on ads that are deemed to present activities as only appropriate for one gender or another, or that mock those who do not conform to stereotypical gender roles. Ads that perpetuate sexist stereotypes, from men bungling housework to girls being less academic than boys, will be banned under rules being proposed by the industry watchdog

Answer 20

One of the earliest cross-cultural studies of gender roles was carried out by Margaret Mead (1935) of tribal groups on the island of New Guinea: * Arapesh were gentle and cooperative (similar to Western stereotype of femininity) * Mundugumor were aggressive / hostile (similar to Western stereotype of masculinity) * Tchambuli women were dominant and organised village life. The men were passive and considered to be ‘decorative’, (the reverse of the Western stereotypes) Mead concluded that gender is culturally determined and that gender roles are acquired through socialisation and adherence to cultural norms. However, Mead’s research has been criticised for not separating her own opinions from her description of Samoan life (observer bias) and making sweeping generalisations based on a relatively short period of study. Cultural similarities: There are many cross-cultural similarities in gender roles. For example, Buss (1955) found similar patterns in mate preferences in 37 countries across all continents. In all cultures, women sought men who could offer wealth and resources, whilst men looked for youth and physical attractiveness in a potential partner. Imposed etics: There is a danger that researchers, armed with theories and methods that have been developed in the West, impose their own cultural interests and understandings upon the people they are studying. Berry (2002) refers to this as an imposed etic. To counteract this, Berry suggested that at least one member of the local population should be included within the research team. This is what Buss did in this research, increasing its cultural validity. Nature or nurture? Although cross-cultural research can provide an insight into the effect of different cultural practices on gender-role behaviour, such research does not solve the nature-nurture debate. In reality, it is impossible to separate the two influences on the development of gender roles. As soon as children are born, their socialisation into society begins (see Smith and Lloyd study). Therefore, it becomes very difficult to determine where nature (biology) stops and nurture (social influence) begins.

Answer 21

Individuals who have gender identity disorder (GID) identify much more with the opposite sex than own their biological sex. For those who experience this, GID is a source of stress and discomfort and is recognised as a psychological disorder in the DSM-5. Many individuals with GID will identify themselves as transgender and may opt for gender reassignment surgery in order to change their external genitalia and appearance to that of the desired sex.

Answer 22

This suggests that GID is caused by specific brain structures that are different in males and females. Zhou (1995) found that a particular area within the thalamus (the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis or BSTc), is around 40% larger in males than females. In a post-mortem study of six male-to-female transgender individuals, the BSTc was found to be a similar size to that of a typical female brain. This was confirmed by Kruijver (2000) who studied the same brain tissue and found that the number of neurons in the BSTc of these transgender individuals was similar to that of a typical female brain.

Answer 23

Evidence suggests that GID may have a genetic basis. Coolidge, 2002, assessed 157 twin pairs for evidence of GID and found that 62% of GID cases were accounted for by genetic variance. Similarly, Heylens (2012) compared 23 MZ and 21 DZ twins, where one of each pair was diagnosed with GID, They found that 39% of the MZ twins were concordant for GID compared to none of the DZ’s. Both of these studies suggests that there is a strong heritable component to GID

Answer 24

Contradictory evidence for BSTc: Although most transsexuals report gender confusion in early childhood, Chung et al (2002) found that hormonal influences that affect the size of the BSTc volume are not triggered until adulthood. This evidence casts doubt on the idea that brain differences are present in early childhood and therefore, that GID is directly caused by the BSTc volume. Twin studies are inconclusive: The concordance rates for GID are not very high (39%). This makes it very difficult to separate the influence of nature and nurture within these investigations. Twins, especially MZ twins, may influence each other, and the environmental conditions they are exposed to are likely to be very similar. E.g., one twin may simply be imitating the behaviour of the other by dressing and acting as the opposite sex. Also due to the fact that GID occurs so rarely, sample sizes in twin studies tend to be extremely small, limiting the extent to which effective generalisations can be made.

Answer 25

Psychoanalytic theory: It has been argued that GID in males is caused by the child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established. The child fantasises of a symbolic fusion with his mother to relieve the anxiety, and the danger of separation is removed. The consequence is that the child becomes overly close to the mother and adopts a female gender identity. Stoller (1973) interviewed GID males and found that they had overly close mother-son relationships, which could lead to greater female identification and confused gender identity in the long term. It is suggested that severe paternal rejection is the cause of GID in females. Unconsciously, the child identifies as a male to gain acceptance from the father (Zucker 2004)

Answer 26

Liben and Bigler (2002) proposed an extension of the gender schema theory that emphasises individual differences in gender identity. The theory suggests two pathways to gender development. In the first pathway, gender identity leads to the development of gender schemas that direct appropriate gender attitudes and behaviour, thus leading to ‘normal’ gender development. In the second pathway, the child’s personal interests and activities become more dominate than their gender identity and this in turn, influences their gender schemas. For example, a boy who plays with dolls might believe that dolls can be for boys and girls. Events such as this then lead to non-sex typed gender schemas. In most people this could lead to androgynous behaviour and a more flexible attitude to gender however, in a small minority it could lead to the formation of the opposite gender identity (GID).

Answer 27

Zucker et al (1996) studied 115 boys with concerns about their gender identity. Of the boys who were diagnosed with GID, 64% were diagnosed with separation anxiety disorder. Zucker also found high levels of emotional involvement in the mothers of boys with GID. This suggests that GID in males is linked to their relationship with their mothers, supporting the psychoanalytical explanation. However, it should be noted that separation anxiety is very difficult to test as it relies on retrospective data, e.g., recalling events that happened in childhood. Why does this lack validity?

Answer 28

It is argued that cognitive explanations of GID are descriptive rather than explanatory. There is very little explanation as to why a child may become interested in activities that are not associated with their own sex or how these activities would cause the development of non sex-typed schema. This failure to identify the cause of non sex-typed schemas weakens the validity of the cognitive theory. In contrast, the biological theory can provide some explanation for why a child may engage in activities not associated with their own sex, e.g., they have a genetic vulnerability towards developing these schemas.

Gender - Paper 3 Flashcards

Paper 3 (52 cards)