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Biology > Homeostasis > Flashcards

Homeostasis Flashcards

1
Q

skin layers

A

top to bottom
epidermis, dermis, hypodermis

skin is derived from ectoderm

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2
Q

epidermis layers

A 
Come, Let's Get Sun Burned
stratum corneum
stratum lucidum
stratum granulosum
stratum spinosum
stratum basale
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3
Q

stratum corneum

A

layer of epidermis closest to the top
forms a barrier that prevents invasion by pathogens and that helps prevent loss of fluids and salt

hair projects above the skin and there are openings for sweat and sebaceous glands

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4
Q

stratum lucidum

A

only present in thick, hairless skin

nearly transparent

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5
Q

stratum granulosum

A

keratinocytes die and lose nuclei

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6
Q

keratinocytes

A

predominant cells of the skin that produce keratin

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7
Q

stratum spinosum

A

site of Langerhans cells

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8
Q

stratum basale

A

contains stem cells and is responsible for proliferation of keratinocytes

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9
Q

melanocytes

A

derived from neural crest cells
found in stratum basale
produce melanin

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10
Q

melanin

A

pigment that serves to protect the skin from DNA damage caused by UV radiation

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11
Q

Langerhans cells

A

special macrophages that reside within the stratum spinosum

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12
Q

dermis layers

A

papillary layer (upper layer made of connective tissue, loose)

reticular layer (denser)

sweat glands, blood vessels, and hair follicles originate in the dermis

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13
Q

Merkel cells (discs)

A

sensory receptors present in epidermal-dermal junction
deep pressure and texture sensation
continuous pressure

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14
Q

Free nerve endings

A

sensory receptors present in epidermis

respond to pain, touch, temperature, and chemicals

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15
Q

Meissner’s corpuscle

A

located in dermis

light pressure, low frequency vibrations

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16
Q

Ruffini endings

A

located in dermis

responds to light touch

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17
Q

Pacinian corpuscle

A

located in dermis

responds to deep pressure and high frequency vibrations

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18
Q

hypodermis

A

layer of connective tissue that connects skin to the rest of the body
contains fat and fibrous tissue

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19
Q

sweating

A

when body temperature rises, hypothalamus must regulate
postganglionic sympathetic neurons utilize acetylcholine to innervate sweat glands and promote secretion of water with certain ions onto skin
heat is evaporated from skin

actual cooling occurs because of the evaporation of water from the skin which absorbs body heat

arteriolar vasodilation occurs to maximize heat loss
brings large quantity of blood to the skin, accelerating evaporation of sweat

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20
Q

what happens when it is cold?

A

arrector pili muscles contract, causing the hairs on the skin to stand (piloerection)
this traps heated air near the skin
arterioles contract, limiting blood flow

shivering produces thermal energy

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21
Q

aldosterone

A

released by the adrenal cortex when system has low blood pressure or high potassium concentration

occurs via renin-angiotensin system

promotes reabsorption (into peritubular capillary) of Na+ and secretion of potassium

water is also reabsorbed through osmosis which increases blood volume and pressure

22
Q

primary active transport

A

uses energy from ATP hydrolysis to power movement up concentration gradient

23
Q

secondary active transport

A

energy coupled to transport of something down its concentration gradient which releases energy and that energy allows another molecule to be pumped against its concentration gradient

24
Q

kidney functions

A

regulate water and ion content in blood (RAS + ADH)
regulate pH
excretion of waste (urea and ammonia)
produces hormones (erythropoietin and calcitriol)
removes foreign substances and toxins

25
Q

erythropoeitin

A

produced by juxtaglomerular cells in the kidneys

hormone that signals bone marrow to increase RBC production

produced when low oxygen levels

usually bound to circulating RBC, when low RBC count, lots of unbound erythropoetin which stimulates bone marrow to increase erythropoesis

26
Q

stomatostatin

A

released by delta cells from the pancreas Islet’s of Langerhans

aka growth hormone inhibiting hormone

27
Q

What do mitochondrial defects primarily effect?

A

metabolically active tissues because mitochondria is where production of energy occurs

ex: hepatocytes (liver), neurons, heart, myocytes (muscle), kidney, etc

28
Q

hepatocytes

A

specific cells in the liver that generate energy for synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.
also detoxify metabolites and drugs

29
Q

paracrine signaling

A

secretes substances that exert effects on neighboring cells

30
Q

exocrine signaling

A

secretes substances (saliva, sweat, enzymes, etc) through a duct and onto an epithelial surface

ex: pancreatic acini secretes pancreatic enzymes into stomach

31
Q

endocrine signaling

A

secretes hormones into bloodstream to effect different part of body

32
Q

insulin resistance

A

aren’t sensitive to insulin so have low intracellular glucose levels and high blood glucose levels

requires more insulin to achieve same amount of glucose reduction in normal cells

33
Q

insulin sensitive

A

only a minimum amount of insulin is needed to induce appropriate reduction in glucose levels

34
Q

How does exercise affect the oxygen dissociation curve?

A

the curve is shifted to the right because less affinity for oxygen. This is caused by accumulation of lactic acid in anaerobic conditions. Production of lactic acid oxidizes NADH –> NAD+ meaning there is a lot of H+ floating around. H+ will bind to hemoglobin and decrease affinity for oxygen. That way the majority of oxygen is unloaded to the muscles.

35
Q

Upregulation of what enzyme could improve oxygen release into the tissues of cirrhotic patients?

A

hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen is decreased in the presence of 2,3 biphosphoglycerate within the RBC

2,3 BPG binds hemoglobin at an allosteric site and stabilizes the deoxygenated conformation. Reduces oxygen binding and increases oxygen release into tissues

36
Q

2,3 biphosphoglycerate

A

intermediate in glycolysis between 1,3 biphosphoglycerate –> 3 phosphoglycerate

enzyme = phosphoglycerate mutase
converts 1,3 –> 2,3

37
Q

Reactive Oxide Species

A

ex: H2O2

can react with lipids in cell membranes and cause membrane ruptures (lysis)

treated by antioxidants

38
Q

Oxidative Stress

A

occurs when reactive oxygen species are overly abundant near cell membranes

39
Q

hemolysis

A

when oxidative stress occurs to blood cells

hemoglobin can leak out and denature, becoming nonfunctional and causing hemolytic anemia

40
Q

How do vitamins affect blood

A

vitamins can increase red blood cell production

41
Q

hemolysis

A

red blood cell rupturing

can be induced by oxidative stress

42
Q

hematocrit

A

standard laboratory measurement of red blood cell volume as a percentage of total blood volume

indicated number of red blood cells within a blood sample

43
Q

How does hemolysis affect hematocrit

A

hemolysis would decrease hematocrit because rupturing of red blood cells would mean less red blood cells

44
Q

Order lipid droplets are transported from intestine to the bloodstream

A

interstitial fluid –> lymph capillaries –> lymph vessels –> lymph duct –> vein

45
Q

interstitial fluid

A

fills the space between blood vessels and surrounding cells

leaked excess fluid from the capillaries become interstitial fluid

46
Q

Lymphatic system

A

capillaries leak some plasma proteins into the interstitial fluid. The fluid enters the lymphatic system where it now becomes lymph and is eventually transported to the bloodstream via lymph vessels.

lymphatic system can college large lipid droplets absorbed by small intestine

  1. lipid droplets are released from epithelial cells into interstitial fluid
  2. lymph capillaries collect lipid droplets from interstitial fluid
  3. lymph containing lipid droplets flows into larger lymph vessels
  4. lymph transported to lymph duct which drains into large vein near heart
47
Q

interferons

A

represent a large class of signaling molecules that act in both innate and adaptive immune systems

48
Q

innate immume system

A

cells ready to nonspecifically attack antigens

include: macrophages, granulocytes (basophiles, eosinophiles, and neutrophiles), dendritic cells, and natural killer cells

respond quickly

49
Q

adaptive immune system

A

contributes specialized or acquired immunity based on learned recognition of specific antigens

has cell mediated immunity and humoral immunity

50
Q

cell mediated immunity

A

part of the adaptive immune system

T cells - receptors on immune cells recognize and bind directly to receptors on target cells

51
Q

humoral immunity

A

part of adaptive immune system

B cells produce antibodies specific to new antigen (primary immune response). These antibodies enable the immune system to respond more quickly if the antigen is encountered later (secondary immune response)

52
Q

lacteals

A

small lymphatic vessels located in the small intestine

transport long fatty acid chains packaged into chylomicrons into the lymphatic system

Biology (15 decks)

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