Hoofdstuk 12 Treadwell (samenvatting flow) Content analysis - understanding communication content in numbers.

Question 1

Content analysis

Answer 1

is a quantitative, systematic, and objective technique for describing the
manifest content of communications.

Question 2

Three types of content analysis

Answer 2

1. Quantitative
2. Systematic
3. Manifest

Question 3

What is quantitative content analysis?

Answer 3

we must count occurrences of whatever we are interested in

Question 4

What is systematic content analysis?

Answer 4

we must count all relevant aspects of the sample, not arbitrarily pick what
aspects get analysed

Question 5

What is manifest content analysis?

Answer 5

we count what is tangible and observable.
For example: we cannot count patriotism in consumer advertising because patriotism
is ultimately an abstract or latent (hidden) notion. What we count is the frequency
with which the word patriotism occurs, the frequency with which a national flag
appears, or perhaps the number of minutes music defined as patriotic is played.

Question 6

Manifest content:

Answer 6

apparent or observable. The variables that operationalize the content.

Question 7

Latent content:

Answer 7

hidden, not apparent, underlying meaning of the manifest content. Trying to
measure a concept.

Question 8

Difference between the perspectives of latent content and manifest content:

Answer 8

The difference between trying to measure a concept (such as patriotism) and measuring the
variables that operationalize that concept (such as number of occurrences of the national
flag).

Question 9

What is the onlything content analysis can represent?

Answer 9

it addresses only questions of content, e.g. ‘have representations of the
military on television changed since 9/11?’. However, ‘are media representations of the
military causing more people to enlist?’ is not a question content analysis can answer, though
it may tribute to an answer.

Question 10

Limitations of content analysis

Answer 10

• It really only has application if used for comparisons. A content analysis indicating that
  a politician used the term patriotism 17 times in the course of a campaign is not useful
  information unless it has some point of reference, like ‘how does the frequency of the
  term patriotism in politician X’s speeches compare with the that in politician Y’s?’
• Interpretation. Traditional perspectives on content analysis insist on counting manifest
  or observable content. If you count the frequency with which the word patriotism
  appears in a politician’s speeches overtime, and you detect an increase, you cannot
  automatically imply the politician has become more patriotic over time. Only the term
  has become more frequent.

Question 11

What do you have to take in account regarding validity and reliability when it comes to content analysis?

Answer 11

Validity can be a problem with content analysis, looking at the examples above, but reliability
can be 100% with computer analysis of text.

Question 12

A basic content analysis study typically has seven parts:

Answer 12

1. Develop a hypothesis or research question about communication content
2. Define the content to be analysed.
3. Sample the universe of the content. Universe has the same meaning for media content
   as population does for people. You sample media from a universe. (Universe is ‘faculty
   vehicle’ in the example study from the book.)
4. Select units for coding. Units are the aspects or components of content sampled for
   study. (Units are candidate names in the example of the book, because these are the
   most obvious component of the campaign.)
5. Develop a coding scheme. Coding scheme is a systematic way or classifying or
   categorizing all units of analysis. (Vehicles can be categorized by colour or
   manufacturer for example.)
6. Assign each occurrence of a unit in the sample to a code in the coding scheme. E.g. the
   first name Is recoded to number 1, the second to 2, etc.
7. Count occurrences of the coded units and report their frequencies.

Question 13

After selecting a universe and developing a sample frame, one can question what units are
going to be sampled. There are, according to Krippendorff (1980) five possible types of units:

Answer 13

1. Physical units
2. Syntactical units
3. Referential units
4. Propositional units
5. Thematic units

Question 14

Physical units:

Answer 14

occupy an observable space in print media or time in audiovisual media.
For example: an entire comic strip or the individual panels within each strip.

Question 15

Syntactical units:

Answer 15

units of language, like words or sentences. For example: the names
of political candidates in Rafael’s study of vehicle campaign stickers.

Question 16

Referential units:

Answer 16

refer to a person or an event. For example: a specific cartoon
character or an event like drinking coffee.

Question 17

Propositional units:

Answer 17

structures such as stories or dramas. For example: a cartoon
character rejecting an offer of alcohol.

Question 18

Thematic units:

Answer 18

broad topics within a structure, like relationships with the boss or
peers. For example: the continuing effort of a son to have his father stop smoking,
show again and again over a series of comic strips.

Question 19

Ground rules for content analysis:

Answer 19

• Categories must not overlap
• No unit can be coded twice, for example: if you found aspirin in a comic it should be fir
  only one category and never more

Question 20

Interaction analysis:

Answer 20

research that seeks to document and understand group roles and
interactions among members of a group.

Question 21

Expanded content analysis:

Answer 21

more categories/units that do not always fit into an obvious
category, possibility to use text and visual context. Basis content analysis only text or visual
context.