Human Geography Flashcards
(163 cards)
1
Q
What is Human Geography?
A
- Geo + graphie = literally “writing about” or “describing” the earth.
- Tries to describe spatial patterns and identify their underlying causes.
- Concerned with patterns and processes of human phenomena -development/expansion of settlements, food production, patterns of cultural activity, population changes and geopolitical relations
2
Q
Human Geography
- Textbook Definition
A
The study of patterns and processes of the earth’s human or social environments, including population change, economies, cultures, politics, settlements, and human interactions with the natural environment.
3
Q
Definiton - Related to 3 Questions
A
Where? - Descriptive location of place
Why there? - Underlying causes as to why it is done there.
Why care? - Why is it beneficial? Est. moral theories for making a value judgement of human activities.
T-Shirt example in text book.
4
Q
Geographical Perspective Explained
A
Human Geog broke into subdisciplines: population, economic, culture, etc.
- What unifies all disciplines is the concern about how things vary across the earth surface.
- How is pop distributed, how do economic activities vary?
- Approach to answering these questions is called geographical perspective.
- Geographers view phenomena and think about their spatial distribution (understanding change over space)
5
Q
Geographic Concepts
A
Every discipline useds simple terms in specialized ways.
- Space
- Place
- Region
6
Q
Space
- Definition
- Two types
A
The ariel extent of something on earths surface.
- Geopgraphers measure space in two ways - absolute space and relative space.
7
Q
Absolute Space
A
Amount of space that can be measures with definable boundaries
- How big is Lethbridge?
- Mathematical accurate
- Home property boundaries
- Country borders
- Property lines are fixed and areal extent of property is not open to interpretation.
- Can be measured in Square units or hectares.
8
Q
Relative/Perceptual Space
A
Subjective and based on a persons perception.
- Perception is based on knowledge and experience.
- Golf - hole is far away for beginners, but not pros.
9
Q
Mental Maps
A
An image of the way space is organized influenced by an individuals knowledge or experience in that space.
- Mental map based on our perception
- Map of Lethbridge would be different for everyone.
10
Q
Scales
Global Vs. Local
A
A study area in the context of the whole earth.
Global: Area being studied closely approximates the entire earth
Local: Focus is on small protion of the earth such as a country or region.
11
Q
Location
- Definition
- Two Types
A
Specific space that does not change.
- Absolute and relative
12
Q
Location
- Absolute Locations
A
- Use system of reference points to identify a precise location
- Constant between observers as it is pinpointed on global grid system (long and latit)
13
Q
Location
- Relative Location
A
Location of a certain place determined by location of other places.
- Varies with observer
I.E. Where is Edmonton?
- 300 km North of Calgary
- 50 bucks in gas
14
Q
Location
- Nominal/Toponym Location
A
Nominal: Refer to a location by its common name.
Toponyms = common name. Associated with particular places and reflects the culture of the individuals naming them, the place itself, and its characteristics
- Lethbridge is the name of a few places, but we think of our city. It has different meaning to us.
15
Q
Two key Components of Location
- Site and Situation
A
Site: Internal physical characteristics of a location - climate, topography and elevation.
Situation: external connections between a location and other locations.
- Thinking about a city based on its strategic location. I.E. Calgary - is an oil location.
16
Q
Place
A
A specifial location
Has acquired particular meaning or significance.
- It is considered a place if it has meaning to me, but to someone else who has no attachment to it, it is simply a location.
Raymond - has meaning to me so it is a place and not a location.
17
Q
Place
- Sense of Place
A
Builds on definiton of place
- feelings evoked by a place such as home, that result from experiences there.
- Feelings positive or negative
18
Q
Place
- Sacred Places
- Placelessness
A
Sites that are significant for religious, political, or other reasons, to an individual or group.
Places we encounter daily and have no meaning to us.
- Fail to prodeuce sense of community.
- They are standardized/homogenous
- Fast food places
- Box stores
19
Q
Region
A
Area defined by shared characteristics
- Cultural
- physical
- combination of both.
20
Q
Regionalization
A
Subdividing large areas into several smaller regions
- Usually involves generalized statements - the prairies, rocky mountains, the north.
21
Q
Types of Regions
A
- Formal (uniform) regions
- Functional (nodal) regions
- Vernacular (perceptual) regions
22
Q
Formal (Uniform) Regions
A
A region that has shared characteristics.
Physical: prairies
Politcal: Cons
23
Q
Functional (Nodal) Regions
A
A region organized around a node or focal point, and unified by specific economic, political, or social activity.
- Has a shared function
Further away from that node the less important it is.
- Church - many people in the area will worship there, but its importance dwindles the further away you get.
24
Q
Vernacular (Perceptual) Region
A
Shared perception of area.
Defined by cultural identity of a group and sense of place.
Raymond - LDS church culture
25
Landscape
- Physical
- Cultural
Visible characteristics
- Can be physical or cultural
- Physical - rocky mountains
- Cultural - modifications to the land made by humans.
26
**Distance**
- **Absolute**
- **Relative**
Space between two entities
Two Units
- Absolute: Physical distance (Km)
- Relative: Experience - time, cost, psychologocal, or social.
27
Concepts: Interaction, Communication, and Movement
Space, place, location and region all refer to the earths surface.
But human Geographers also interested in people and places and these concepts build our understanding of how people inhabit the places they do.
- Distribution, Diffusion and Interaction
28
Distribution
**Patterns identified through varying distances between objects**.
Three components:
- density: How often phenomena exists
- concentration: phenomena clustered/dispersed - car lots
- pattern: spatial arrangements - houses in patterns.
29
Diffusion and Interaction
Two concepts used to understand connections between people and places.
30
Diffusion
**Spatial connections through spread and growth**.
- Reps one way change occurs
31
Cultural Diffusion
- Relocation
- Expansion
Where an idea or innovation spreads from its source to other places.
Relocation
- People move and physically take phenomena with them.
Expansion
- Spread of culture without individual movement.
32
Expansion Diffusion occurs Via:
Contagious
Hierarchial
Contagious
- Similar to disease
- greater # of contacts and closer people are the faster it spreads.
Hierarchial
- Through key people or places first.
- Music
33
Interaction (Spatial)
Space affects interaction.
- Through distance between locations
- Through site qualities.
34
Distance
- **Toblers First Law of Geog**
“everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things”
35
Interaction Cont.
-**Distance Decay**
The effects of distance on spatial interaction.
- The further we have to travel for something, the less likely we are to do so.
- Buying groceries
36
**Friction of Distance**
The effect of distance is not static
Affected by technology, other factors
- Cars, communication, money
37
Site Qualities
- Accessibility
- Connectivity
While distance influences where you go, so does accessibility and connectivity.
**Accessibility**
- Ease with which a location can be reached.
**Connectivity**
- Direct and indirect linkages between two places.
- Phones, cars, trains.
38
Geographical Tools (2)
Two distinct tools
1. **Maps**: gather, convey, and analyze spatial information.
2. **Recent Geomatics Technologies**: Enhance gathering, conveying, and analyzing practices.
39
Geographical Tools
- Maps
- **Cartography**
- Used for 8000 yrs - clay tablets in Turkey
- 3000 yrs. ago Greeks advenced mapping techniques.
- Use visual techniques
Cart: The art and science of map making. Used info from surveryors until 1960s. Now maps done digitally.
40
Global Grid
Needed to make maps
- Two arc systems created a grid across earths surface.
- Arcs of **latitude and longitude**.
- Absolute location for any point on earth can be described using this grid system.
41
Global Grid
- Acrs of Latitude
Run horizontal scross the earth
- Best known line is the equator
- Called parallels because each line repping a different degree of latitude, runs parallel to the others.
- Parallels measured as angles form earths centre.
42
Global Grid
- Arcs of Longitude
- Run perpendicular to lines of latitude which are meridians that connect at the two poles.
- Best known line is prime meridian which reps 0 degrees.
- Arcs measured as angles from the earths axis.
43
Global Grid
- **Time Zones**
Created in 19th century to co-ordinate international movement (trains).
- Help create shipping times and keeping time.
- 24 zones of 15 degrees (sun passes 15 degrees of longitude every hr).
- Zones also created politically and socially.
44
Map Scale
- Large Vs. Small
All maps are scaled models of the earth
**Scale relates map distance to absolute distance**.
- Large scale maps show small areas with less info - world map
- Small scale maps show lots of info - city maps
45
Map Projection
**Required to convert 3 dimensional space onto 2 dimensional images**.
- Different projections for different needs
- Distort size, shape and distance of space
Mercator projection and navigation
- Planar projections
- Conic projections
- Cylindrical projections
46
Map Forms and Types
- **Reference Maps**
**Designed to illustrate locations** such as towns, cities, and buildings.
- Combine coordinate systems (lat/long) as needed to plot locations or navigate.
- Road maps and transit routes
47
Map Forms and Types
- **Thematic Maps**
**Designed to illustarte analysis**.
- Illustrate patterns or trends
- Political voting maps
48
Thematic Maps
- Four Types
Map type depends on the information being presented and the message the map is intended to convey.
1. Dot Maps
2. Choropleth Map
3. Isoline Map
4. Cartograms
49
Thematic Maps
- Dot Map
Each dot reps an occurance of the phenomena being mapped.
- Maps that show cases of illness and disease within a town
- Sport maps on history of goals.
50
Thematic Maps
- Choropleth Map
Uses colour or shading to indicate differences in an area.
- People per km
51
Thematic Maps
- Isoline Map
Lines that link points with the same measurement.
- Maps of mountiains from above that have lines that show elevation.
52
Thematic Maps
- Cartograms
The size and shape of space is distorted to emphasize the attributes being mapped.
- Difference indicated by distortion of area size.
- Area of provinces distorted to demonstrate its share of the population.
53
Spatial Analysis and Geomatics Technologies
Used to obtain data for map making.
- Previously used information from surveys and people.
54
Geomatics Include Four Technologies
1. Remote sensing
2. Computer – assisted cartography
3. Global positioning systems (GPS)
4. Geographic information systems (GIS)
55
Remote Sensing
Obtaining spatial data using both photographic and non-photographic sensor systems to monitor the earth and its surface features from a distance
- Conventional camrera used until the 1960s.
- Now we have satellites and drones
- Satellites measure electromagnetic radiation.
- Internet and Google images also aid in info gathering from a distance.
56
Computer Assisted Cartography
AKA
Digital Mapping
- Previoulsy we drew things on paper and sent it to the printer.
- Now done via computer
- Can create, amend and update info
- Create map features
- Loss of drafting skills, but still need to design.
57
Global Positioning System
(GPS)
- What is it and Controversies
Satellite system used to determine the absolute location.
- GPS devices and phones detect signals from satellites and give us our exact location and elevation.
Controversies
- Daily activity with digital maps are a participatory process. Meaning our devices gather info while we use them - driving habits for apps.
- Privacy and permission issues
-
58
Geographic Information System (GIS)
Computer-based tool that captures, stores, displays, analyzes, and maps large volumes of spatially referenced data.
- geographers combine multiple layers of spatial data to reveal spatial distributions and patterns, and to uncover spatial processes (population growth). All in one digital map.
- Example on page 33 of text about creating an urban map.
59
People and Places
- How to understadnd interactions
Human geography is all about studying people and places and the interactions between the two.
- One way to understand this interaction is through building your geographical "awareness".
- No specific formula to do this.
- Know key places and something about them.
- Think about connections and how will these key places affect other locations?
- Ukraine issue or China issue with COVID
60
**Demography**
Studies (3)
The science that studies
- Population size and composition (Age, sex)
- The processes influencing population change (fertility, mortality)
- The links between populations and the larger human environments they are part of.
61
Population Distribution
Refers to where people are located and in what numbers.
- key concern of human geography.
- Info found through census
62
Population Distribution
- Three key elements
- Three Factors
Elements
1. Concentration - populations clustered or dispersed.
2. Density - why do more live in one area than another?
3. Pattern - No idea
Three Factors
1. Physical - Climate, water, soil
2. Cultural - History, migration, religion
3. Economic - politics, jobs, living cost.
63
Distribution or World Population
People prefer living in certain places more than others, and these preferences are linked to both human and physical geographic factors.
64
Dist of World Pop
- Three areas of historic concentration
- South-Central Asia clustered along key rivers and coasts
- East Asia clustered toward east coast along rivers, disperses to west.
- Europe (including Russia) clustered toward west and along rivers, relatively more urban.
65
Other Regional Patterns/Trends
- Growth in Afrcia and South Asia
- China pop will decline by 2050
- Nigeria will double in pop: fertility, better healthcare.
- Disease will affect populations
- See effect on death rates in the future due to COVID
66
**Population Density**
**Amount of population over area**.
– # of people per square km.
Country size does not matter.
– most populated tend to be small islands
Patterns reflect historic agricultre and the prodictivity of the land.
67
Population Dynamics
and
Components
How does populaiton change happen?
Components:
1. fertility
2. mortality
3. migration
68
Population Dynamics
- Global Level Equation
P1 = P0 + B - D
P1 = population at the beginning of time period 1
Po = population at the beginning of time period o (before time period 1)
B = number of births between time periods o and 1
D = number of deaths between time periods o and 1
69
Population Dynamics
- Subglobal Equation
Includes migration
P1 = P0 + B - D + I – E
Pi = population at the beginning of time period 1
Po = population at the beginning of time period o (before time period 1)
B = number of births between time periods o and 1
D = number of deaths between time periods o and 1
I = number of migrants into the area (immigrants) between times o and 1
E = number of migrants out of the area (emigrants) between times o and 1
70
Measuring Fertility
- **Crude Birth Rate (CBR)**
Total live births in a given
period (1 yr.) for every 1,000 people already living.
71
Measuring Fertility
- **Total fertility Rate (TFR)**
Average number of children a women will have, assuming she gives birth at age-specific rates, as she passed through child-bearing years.
- Between 2.1 and 2.5 is considered **replacement level**
- Lower than this then the population will decline
- More will result in population growth
72
Factors Affecting Fertility
(Biological)
- Fecundity
To accurately reflect fertility patterns we measure fecundity (fecund years)
- potential ability of a women to have children.
- Affected by age, nutrition and well-being.
73
Factors Affecting Fertility
(Economic)
- Traditional societies = large families
- Modern societies = small
- Cost-benefit decision
- Affected by economic factors and social needs
74
Factors Affecting Fertility
(Cultural)
Marriage age
- affects fecund years
Contraceptive use
- more people use now
- More use in developed countries
Views on abortion
75
Variations in Fertility
- Spatial
- Correspond to economic development, but not root cause
- Developed/Industrialized = fertility decline
- Fertility higher for women with less education and lower income.
76
Measuring Mortality
- **Crude Death Rate**
Total deaths in 1 year for every 1000 people
CDR= #of deaths divided by mid year population x 1000
Does not factor in age. Very young and old = more chance of dying.
77
Measuring Mortality
- Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)
Another measure of mortality surrounding age structure
- Death of infant under 1 per 1000 live births
- Declining due to healthcare
78
Life Expectancy
Not a mortality measure
- good indicator of well-being
- Anticipated average number of years lived.
79
Factors Affecting Mortality
CDR can neever be zero.
- Food availability
- Nutrition quality
- Sanitation quality – Personal and physical (bathrooms)
- Healthcare availability and quality
- Disease: COVID
- Conflict – wars
80
Variations in Mortality
- Why Study Mortality?
Studying death stats tell us how people lived their lives.
- World patterns of CDR less than CBR
- Life expectancy reflects economic-socio development
Varies between countries
- Russia high CDR - old age
- Afrcia high - poverty, healthcare
Varies within countires
- Africa high CDR - poverty
- Africa LE rates also lower
81
Natural Increase
- Rate of Natural Increase (RNI)
- **Population Momentum**
RNI is CBR-CDR x 10
- **RNI is 12 per 1000 = 1.2%**
- World pop increasing, but at decreased rate.
- World pop double in 39 yrs.
Pop increase due to increase in females in fecund years.
82
Government Policies
- Mortality Policy
Mortality policy generally aims to lower deaths
- Vaccines
But sometimes have policy to increase death rates.
- defund healthcar
- War drafting
- Genocide
Fertility policy is variable
- Raise or decline based on needs
- China one kid rule.
Some gov'ts do not have any policy.
83
Pro-Natalist Policies
Typically in places dominated by catholic or Islamic theology.
Social or political reasons
- large pop needed for economy
- dominant ethnic group in danger of being overrun by small ethnic group.
Increase fertility via
- Financial incentives
- Cheap day care
84
Anti-Natalies Policies
- Common after 1960
- Less developed countries
- Feared **carry capacity** exceeded
- China one kid policy
- Families told to plan their families
85
**Age and Sex Structure**
- Three General Patterns
1. Pop expanding = High proportion of pop in young groups
- High fertility means next age group larger.
2. Pop stable = each age group same size.
3. Pop decline = Older groups larger than smaller.
86
Global Population Aging
**Year 2000**: First year people under 14 outnumbered by people over 60.
- Declining fertility and increased Life Expectancy..
- Pop aging is when older folks make up larger portion of pop.
87
Global Population Aging
- **Consequences**
- Stress on pensions and social benefits
- Economy faces strain as less workers to support non-working
- Lead to new patterns of disease and disability
88
Dependancy Ratio
AND
Old - Age Dependancy Ratio
P 0-14 + P65+ divided by P15-64 X 100
P65+ Divided by P15-64 X 100
89
History of Population Growth
- Three Reasons
- Historically pop growth related to climate and food availability.
- Overtime humans became free of these constraints.
Reasons for Growth
- Agriculture
- Industialization
- Urbanization
90
Population Projections
- Debates
- Growth slowing
- Pop levelling by 2050
Debates
Pessimits: Natural limits can be reached.
Optimists: Technology will increase limits.
91
Explaining Population Growth
- Theories (3)
Hard to predict with many variables.
Three Theories
1. S- Shape Curve Model
2. Malthusian Theory
3. Demographic Transition
92
S-Shape Curve Model
Carefully controlled experimental conditions
Growth begins slowly, then increases rapidly (exponentially), and finally levels out at a ceiling.
Pop growth may workout this way by 2200.
93
Malthusian Theory
- Essay
- Observations/Hypothesis
**Thomas Malthus (1766-1834). An Essay on the Principle of Population 1798**
Developed hypothesis and observations
- Food production increases at an arithmetic rate
- Population increases at a geometric rate
- Hypothesis: Population will exceed food supply.
94
Malthusian Theory
- Preventive Checks
Prevent consequences by reducing fertility though checks such as:
- Delayed Marriage
- Moral Restraint
Positive Checks
Humans unable to voluntarily adopt checks unless in extreme circs:
- War
- Famine
Theory lost favor as birth rates reductions and emigration eased population pressures.
95
Why was Malthus Wrong?
- Passion between sexes is constant
- But females regulate fertility
Food production = f (yield + arable land area)
Yield
- Agricultural developments post 1750
Arable land area
- New World
96
The Demographic Transition
Descriptive - describes changing levels of fertility and mortality.
Based on experience/facts and not hypothesis.
Advantage: more realistic
Disadvantage: does not offer prediction for future.
See Pg. 67 Model
97
Migration
Also affects distribution of population.
- Long-term relocation of an individual or group
- Humans always migrate: Euro to America
- Expanded resource base: Agriculture facilitated pop increase and culture change.
98
Why People Migrate?
- **Push Pull Logic**
Push-Pull Logic
- Favorable/unfavorable conditions
- Natural environment, economic, politics
Problematic Assumption: All people behave according to one logic.
99
Why People Migrate?
- **Moorings**
Moorings are issues through which individuals give meaning to their lives.
People move for reasons that give purpose to them.
- Career/Education
- Class structure
- Climate
100
The Selectivity of Migration
Different factors affect an individual’s choices
- Age
- Marital status
- Gender
- Occupation
- Education
Impact of policy, other political and social restrictions
- Military service policy if they pay for education
101
Types of Migration (5)
Primitive
- Pre-industrial, environmental causes
- Land slides, volcanoes, etc
Forced and impelled
- Political/social coercion
- East-west trans-Atlantic slave trade
Free migration
- Free will
Mass migration
Illegal migration
102
Health Geographies
Another Discipline
- distribution and diffusion of disease and poor health.
- the risks and effects of environmental contaminants (air, water pollution)
- socio-economic determinants of health (old folk facilities)
- uneven access to and availability of health care
103
Distribution and Diffusion of Disease
- Disease Connected To
- Why Study?
Many diseases connected to
- natural environments
- social conditons
Studying
- Mapping spatial distributions helps prevent illness.
- E.g., Ebola - tropical environments - risks increased by social conditons
- E.g., Aids - Tropical - social behaviors spread it.
104
The Epidemiological Transition
- Four Stages
Demographic transition leads to shift in prevalance of types of disease.
1. Age of pestilence and famine
2. Age of receding pandemics
3. Age of degenerative diseases
4. Age of delayed degenerative diseases
105
Age of pestilence and famine
- Dominance of infectious and parasitic disease
- LE short
- typhus, cholera, and the plague.
106
Age of Receding Pandemics
Beginning of control of disease
- public health
- sanitization
- nutrition
LE starts rising
107
Age of Degenerative Diseases
Increase in chronic and degenerative conditions associated with aging.
- Cancer
- Cardiovascular disease
- Alzheimers
108
Age of Delayed Degenerative Diseases
Extension of third age
Life-extending medical care and prescriptions allow long LE
109
Health Care
Shift from disease focus to health focus
Healthcare provisions
- Public, private and hybrid systems
110
New PowerPoint:
Global Inequality
111
What (and where) are the More and Less Developed Countries
First world: Capitalist
Second: Socialist
Third: Another economic route
Later came terms developed and under developed.
112
Defining Development
- Traditonal Ways
- GDP
- GNP
Economic and social development measured by:
- size and power of a country’s economy.
Currently
Can be measuered via:
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
- Produced in country
Gross National Product (GNP)
- Produced in country and out
Allows for easy comparions
Does not consider cost of living differences.
113
Defining Development Cont.
- Ethnocentric
- Eurocentric
Definitions of development sometimes ethnocentric.
- Stereotype that your culture is natural and all others are inferior.
Others argue concept of development is Eurocentric.
- A view that places Europe as the benchmark for all comparisons.
114
Measuring Economic Development
- GNI
- Four Categories
- Developmentalism
World development report uses Gross National Income (GNI) to measure development.
They group countries into four categories"
1. Low income
2. Lower-middle income
3. upper-middle income
4. High income
One problems with this ranking is it creates developmentalism.
- Assumes all areas proceed through same stages of development.
- As countries become technologically advanced their GNI should increase.
115
Measuring Economic Development
- Cost of living
- Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)
Presents challenges when comparing GDP to other countries.
- Every place has different costs.
This is overcome by Purchasing Power Parity (PPP).
- Calculate local cost of product/services and create exchange rate for each country.
- Exchange rate interprets buying power of a country's average income.
116
Measuring Human Development
- HDI
Done via Human Development Index
- numerical measure of how well basic human needs are being met.
Compares country's via
- health (life expectancy)
- education (years of schooling)
- income
117
Explaining Global Inequalities
- Common Question
- Two Theories
Why do different levels of development and related inequalities exist?
- Old answer was "races" which is scientifically incorrect.
Two theories
1. Shape of continent
2. World Systems and Dependancy Theory
118
Explaining Global Inequalities
- Shape of continent
Why did some places expand agriculture while others did not?
Jared Diamond 1997
- East-west latitiude allows for agriculture tech to spread across similar climate.
- This starts chain reaction that allows some societies to spread overseas.
119
Explaining Global Inequalities
- World Systems Theory
Idea that the world is a system of countries linked together by an economic and political competition that shapes relations between developed, less developed, and least developed countries.
- Core countries benefit by receiving surplus and maintain inequality.
- Semiperipheral partially dependent on core countries
- Peripheral countries dependent on core countries.
Scholars: colonialism led to economic dependence.
120
Explaining Global Inequalities
- Dependency Theories
Some areas must remain underdeveloped for others to become more developed.
Canada relies on Taiwan for cheap products and Taiwan relies on Canada for employment in factories.
121
Feeding the World
- Causes of Hunger
- Poor Dietary Health
In 2017 - 850 million hungry
Causes of famine and hunger have changed:
- Historic causes: natural events
- Current causes: social conditions which limit food access
Poor dietary health can be defined in terms of
- Lack of food of quantity: undernutrition
- Lack of food quality: malnutrition
122
Explaining Food Shortages
Classic explanations:
- Overpopulation (problematic)
- Bad distribution of supplies
- Localized physical or human circumstances
Drought, flooding, wars
123
Explaining Food Shortages
- Political and Economical
Political arrangements make it difficult for less developed countries to farm.
- Small farms cannot compete with commercial farms.
Many farming cannot grow staple crops.
- Gov't provides credit for cheap crops such as tea/coffee so they can sell it to urbanized locations for cheap costs.
124
Explaining Food Shortages
- The Role of Bad Gov't
Lack of rights and ability to challenge government
Under investment in rural (agric) areas.
Political instability
- instability means nobody will invest -no returns.
Disease, affecting productive capacity
High population growth
125
Refugees
Person forced to flee their country in the face of persecution or other threats to safety.
- Generally, result from conflict or natural disaster
Formally defined in the post–World War II context.
- First major refugee movements
Monitored by the UN High Commission for Refugees
126
Types of Refugees
1. **Asylum seekers**: left home country and have applied for refugee status in some other country
2. **Returnees**: refugees who are in the process of returning home (the desired goal for most refugees)
3. **Internally displaced persons** (IDPs): people who flee their homes but remain within their home country
127
Refugee Growing Problem
- Where do they go?
- 67.7 million
- 49% female from Syria
- Most flee to neighboring country
- Europe accepts most refugees due to proximity, but people becoming less tolerant there now.
128
Refugee Solutions
Voluntary repatriation
- refugees decide to return home on their own.
- Not feasible for most refugees because, in most cases, the circumstances that caused them to leave have not changed.
Local Settlement
- Usually in neighboring country
- Country usually poor with no resources
Resettlement
- Only an option for a few
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Natural Disasters and Disease
Impact varies with social and economic wellbeing
- People in less developed countries are more likely the victims of these natural disasters and communicable diseases
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Natural Disasters
The term “natural disaster” now considered less accurate
- Inability to plan or respond to certain natural events can lead to disaster
- Understanding how natural events become human disasters requires understanding cultural, political, and economic frameworks.
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Natural Disasters Cont.
Earthquakes, Volcanic Eruptions, and Tsunamis
- Points of earth’s surface prone to movement, eruptions
- Prediction is improving, but imperfect
Hurricanes / Tropical Cyclones
- Tropical storms which build strength moving over oceans
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Disease
- Development and Health Linked
Treatable diseases can be devastating without resource access
- E.g., Malaria
Low-income countries, the main causes of death are preventable and treatable.
- E.g., diarrheal diseases, malaria, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, maternal and infant deaths
High-income countries, the main causes of death are non-communicable/degenerative diseases
- E.g., cancer, heart disease, stroke
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Prospects for Economic Growth
Variation in both Less Developed Countries (LDCs) and More Developed Countries (MDCs)
Key issues
- Legacy of debt
- Industrialization
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Solving the Debt Crisis
1970s: MDC gave loans to LDCs
- Structured loans for LDC growth
- 1980s recession hit
- high debt with bad repayment plans
- Created crisis
- Later international debt relief programs.
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Industrialization and Development
Two terms often related
- manufacturing overtakes agriculture
- Urban settlement patterns
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Indust Cont.
- Explanations for success and failures
Dependency Theory
- Colonial countries were producers and the market for raw materials. Hard to move past this attitude.
- No money for infrastructure
- No education
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Indust Cont.
- **Import Substitution**
Premise that country reduces dependency via local production of industrialized products.
- Light industries - food processing and textile.
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**Structural Adjustment Programs**
Loans given to LDCs by lending agencies.
Conditons include
- Increase international trade
- Privatize state owned companies
- Reduce gov't spending
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Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
2000 UN summit identifies 8 goals to improve lives of people in poor countries by 2015.
Goals
1. Eradicate poverty/ hunger.
2. Improve education.
3. Promote gender equality
4. Reduce child mortality.
5. Improve maternal health.
6. Combat disease.
7. Ensure environmental sustainability.
8. Develop a “global partnership for development.
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Sustained Development Goals (SDGs)
Had a lot of success with previous goals so created more.
UN developed 17 sustainable goals by 2030
1. End poverts
2. End hunger
3. Gender equality
4. Ensure education
5. clean energy
6. economic growth
7. Promote peace
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Geographies of Culture and Landscape
142
A world divided by Culture
- Culture
A society's shared way of life
- emerged from human ability to develop ideas from experience
- Culture is dynamic and changes
- Est. Cultures resist change
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Formal Cultural Regions
- Cultural Regions
Areas with a **degree of
homogeneity** in cultural characteristics (all the same).
- Language, religion
Delimitation considers least four basic points:
1. Criteria for inclusion (i.e., defining characteristic)
2. Date or time period as regions may change
3. Spatial scale: regions are scale-dependent
4. Boundary lines
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World Regions
Do not represent the
best use of the culture
concept in geography
145
North American Regions
Smaller scale regions show more homogenity
Homelands: Based on four criteria
1. people
2. place
3. sense of place
4. control of place
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Cultural Regions: National Scale
- Four criteria
1. Political Boundary
2. Economic Activities
3. Resource basis
4. Cultural Landscape
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Vernacular Cultural Regions
- Identified via perceptions
- Can be invented through languages to mask other cultural identities (Ukraine)
- Regions are usually places and not locations (meaning).
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Making of Cultural Landscapes
Cultures have different methods to acheive same goals
- obtain food, shelter, kids
As ties to physical environment loosen, ties to culture increases.
Industrial Revolution destroyed physical, but created new cultures.
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Cultural Adaptation
Allows us to respond to
changing physical and social environments
- Group or Individual scale
- E.g., Attitude and behavior
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Cultural Diffusion
The process of spread in geographic
space and of growth through time
- New ideas/practices from elsewhere.
Four patterns.
1. **Neighborhood Effect**
2. Hierarchical Effect
3. Diffusion and Resitance
4. Cumulative Effects
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Cultural Diffusion
**1.** **Neighborhood Effects**
Diffusion is distance based
- Probability of new adoptions is higher for those living close to adopter.
- Farming tech will be adopted by those closer to where the tech came from first.
- Popular in gemeinschaft societies - rural personal relationships.
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Hierarchical Effect
Large centre adopt first and then it trickles down urban hierarchy.
- Jumps town to town instead of wave like neighborhood.
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Diffusion and Resistance
Not all groups receptive at same time.
- Resistance is a sociological thing.
- Greater resistance the longer it takes to adopt it.
- Rural more resistant
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Cumulative Effects
When portion of population adopts an innovation.
S-Shape curve
- Slow start, then rapid, then evens out.
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Cultural Variables: Language and Religion
Important in understanding people and landscapes
- Good basis for delimiting (determine boundaries) groups. Hence regions.
- Affect behavior and landscape
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Language
Learned behavior and shapes culture
- Delimits groups
- Often fundamental to nations
- Encourages interaction within group, but not between
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Disappearing Languages
94% speak 4% of languages
Language dies when
- it is not passed on
- Actively oppressed
- Inter-group favors new language
When language is lost, culture is to.
May spread with conquest
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Language Classification and Regions
- Language Families
Related languages derived from common ancestor.
- Show variations between groups and migration patterns
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Language and Identity
- Nationalism
- Multilingual States
Nationalism
- Linked to language
- Boundaries of language regions not defined well
- Many adopt their language due to power struggles - Ukraine
Multilingual
- More than one language
- Canada
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Language and Identity Cont.
- Communication between different groups
**Lingua franca**: Created to facilitate communication between groups
**Pidgin**: simplified compositions of several languages, to aid communication between groups
**Creole**: pidgin language which becomes a mother
tongue for a group
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Language and Landscape
- Toponym
- Why give name?
Name of a place
- Give meaning or understanding
- Know and control, and remove uncertainty.
Names give info about a place and can reflect power relations.
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Religion
- Definition
- Two Hearths
A set of beliefs and associated
activities facilitating and expressing the place of humans in the world
1. Indo-Gangetic: HIndu, buddhism
2. Semitic: Judaism, Christian
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Religion Cont.
- Ethnic Religions
- Universalizing religions
Linked to a particular group of
people and/or places
- not active in conversion
- Passed through generations
- Hinduism
Active in conversion and
diffusion - missionaries
- Broad religions
- Christians
