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Question

What does the leaderless group discussion evaluate?

Answer 1

The leadership potential of participants ## Footnote A small group works together to solve a job-related problem without an assigned leader.

Answer 2

A measure of biographical information chosen for predicting job performance ## Footnote Also known as biographical information blank (BIB).

Answer 3

* Education * Work history * Family history * Health history * Interests * Social relationships ## Footnote Items are empirically derived and may be presented in a multiple-choice format.

Answer 4

It has been found to be a good predictor for a variety of jobs, including unskilled and managerial/executive-level jobs ## Footnote Reference: Schmidt, Oh, & Shaffer, 2016.

Answer 5

Some items may lack face validity ## Footnote Applicants might view these items as irrelevant or an invasion of privacy.

Answer 6

False ## Footnote Some applicants may refuse to answer items they consider irrelevant.

Answer 7

Compensatory and noncompensatory methods ## Footnote Compensatory methods allow high scores on some predictors to offset low scores on others, while noncompensatory methods do not.

Answer 8

A method where a high score on one or more predictors can compensate for a low score on another predictor ## Footnote Examples include clinical prediction and multiple regression.

Answer 9

A method relying on the subjective judgment of decision makers regarding job requirements ## Footnote It is susceptible to biases and errors, making it less accurate than statistical methods.

Answer 10

It is susceptible to biases and errors ## Footnote Studies have confirmed that statistical methods are more accurate for predicting job performance.

Answer 11

A statistical method for combining scores, where each predictor is weighted based on its correlations ## Footnote The weighted scores are combined to estimate a criterion score.

Answer 12

Methods where a low score on one predictor cannot be compensated for by a high score on another predictor ## Footnote Examples include multiple cutoff and multiple hurdles.

Answer 13

A method where all predictors are administered to all applicants, and each must score above a cutoff to be considered ## Footnote This ensures that all predictors are evaluated.

Answer 14

A method where predictors are administered in a prespecified order and each must meet the cutoff to proceed ## Footnote It is preferable when it is too costly to administer all predictors to all applicants.

Answer 15

When it would be too costly to administer all of the predictors to all applicants ## Footnote This method allows for a more efficient selection process.

Answer 16

Yes, they can be combined by using multiple regression to predict the criterion scores of applicants who score above the cutoff ## Footnote This allows for a more refined selection process.

Answer 17

Adequate reliability and validity, increase decision-making accuracy, no adverse impact, adequate utility

Answer 18

The degree to which a predictor is free from measurement error and provides consistent scores

Answer 19

Ranges from 0 to 1.0; closer to 1.0 indicates less measurement error and greater consistency

Answer 20

The extent to which a predictor measures what it was designed to measure

Answer 21

* Content validity * Construct validity * Criterion-related validity

Answer 22

The extent to which a predictor adequately samples the knowledge or skills it’s intended to measure

Answer 23

By basing it on job analysis results and having subject matter experts review the content

Answer 24

The extent to which a predictor measures the hypothetical trait it was designed to measure

Answer 25

By correlating scores on the predictor with scores on valid measures of the same, similar, and different constructs

Answer 26

The degree to which scores on the predictor correlate with scores on the criterion

Answer 27

From -1.0 to +1.0; closer to 0 indicates lower criterion-related validity

Answer 28

The increase in decision-making accuracy by adding a new selection technique to the existing selection procedure

Answer 29

When its criterion-related validity coefficient is large

Answer 30

The percent of job applicants the company plans to hire, calculated by dividing the number of hires by total applicants

Answer 31

More applicants to choose from; for example, a selection ratio of .10 means one of ten applicants will be hired

Answer 32

The percent of employees hired using the current selection procedure who are considered successful

Answer 33

A moderate base rate, around .50

Answer 34

To estimate a predictor’s incremental validity for various combinations of criterion-related validity coefficients, base rates, and selection ratios

Answer 35

21% increase in successful employees

Answer 36

A type of unfair discrimination where a personnel selection method negatively affects protected group members compared to majority group members ## Footnote Also referred to as disparate impact.

Answer 37

Guidelines adopted in 1978 by the EEOC to address adverse impact in employee selection. ## Footnote These guidelines include interpretations and clarifications from 1979.

Answer 38

Occurs when one group consistently scores lower on a selection test without corresponding differences in job performance. ## Footnote For example, women may score lower on tests despite similar job performance ratings as men.

Answer 39

When a selection test has significantly different validity coefficients for different groups. ## Footnote For instance, a test might have a validity coefficient of .70 for men and .20 for women.

Answer 40

A method to determine adverse impact where the hiring rate for a protected group is less than 80% of the majority group's hiring rate. ## Footnote Example: If White applicants have a 70% hiring rate, African-American applicants must have at least 56%.

Answer 41

1. Replace the procedure 2. Modify the procedure 3. Demonstrate no alternative exists and that the procedure is job-related ## Footnote Job-relatedness can be established through validity, business necessity, or bona fide occupational qualification.

Answer 42

Established by showing the procedure is valid, a business necessity, or a bona fide occupational qualification. ## Footnote Validity can be criterion-related, content, or construct.

Answer 43

A qualification necessary for normal business operations, applicable to gender, age, religion, and national origin, but not race. ## Footnote For example, a religious school may require faculty to be members of its denomination.

Answer 44

A method for evaluating the economic return on investment of human resource interventions like staffing and training. ## Footnote Commonly cited formula: Brogden-Cronbach-Gleser formula.

Answer 45

* Number of individuals hired * Test’s validity coefficient * Standard deviation of job performance in dollars * Cost of testing

Answer 46

Needs analysis ## Footnote Needs analysis is also known as needs assessment and is used to identify training needs.

Answer 47

* Organizational analysis * Task (job) analysis * Person analysis * Demographic analysis

Answer 48

Identifying organizational goals and determining if employee performance problems are due to a lack of training or other factors

Answer 49

The tasks required to perform the job and the KSAOs needed for each task ## Footnote KSAOs stand for Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and Other characteristics.

Answer 50

To identify which employees have deficiencies that require training

Answer 51

The training needs of specific groups of workers, such as older versus younger workers

Answer 52

* On-the-job methods * Off-the-job methods

Answer 53

* Apprenticeships * Internships * Coaching * Mentoring * Job rotation * Cross-training

Answer 54

Having the trainee rotate through a predetermined set of jobs within the organization

Answer 55

Teaching employees how to perform essential tasks performed by other employees

Answer 56

* Usually less costly than off-the-job training * Alleviates problems related to transfer of training

Answer 57

* Potential for errors * Safety problems * Slowdown or disruption of productivity

Answer 58

Training that takes place at a site away from the actual worksite

Answer 59

* Classroom lectures * Technology-based training * Behavior modeling * Simulation training

Answer 60

Bandura’s social learning theory

Answer 61

When on-the-job training would be too costly or dangerous

Answer 62

A type of simulation training using actual machinery or equipment

Answer 63

* Greater control over the training environment * Allows a large number of employees to be trained simultaneously * Permits the use of multiple training methods

Answer 64

* May cost more than on-the-job training * May not provide adequate transfer of training

Answer 65

Mentoring focuses on professional development and personal growth, while coaching focuses on performance and achieving organizational goals. ## Footnote Mentoring involves a relationship between a mentor and a mentee, whereas coaching is a structured process aimed at enhancing performance.

Answer 66

A relationship where a mentor provides support and guidance to a less experienced mentee for professional development. ## Footnote Mentoring involves career and psychosocial functions.

Answer 67

1. Career functions 2. Psychosocial functions ## Footnote Career functions prepare mentees for advancement, while psychosocial functions promote personal and professional growth.

Answer 68

1. Coaching analysis 2. Coaching discussions ## Footnote Coaching analysis identifies performance conditions, while coaching discussions aim to enhance employee performance.

Answer 69

Coaching is more formal and structured with regular meetings and specific tasks, while mentoring is generally less structured. ## Footnote Coaching has measurable goals and is typically time-bound.

Answer 70

Learning or practicing beyond the point of mastery, resulting in automaticity. ## Footnote Automaticity allows tasks to be performed with little conscious effort.

Answer 71

The principle that greater similarity between training and work situations leads to better transfer of training. ## Footnote Identical elements encompass both physical and psychological fidelity.

Answer 72

Transfer of training is maximized when a variety of stimuli are used during training. ## Footnote This includes using multiple examples and practicing in various conditions.

Answer 73

an entire task at once. ## Footnote In contrast, part-task training divides the task into subtasks.

Answer 74

False. ## Footnote Overtraining refers to negative symptoms from excessive athletic training, not learning.

Answer 75

1. Distributed vs. Massed Practice 2. Whole-Task vs. Part-Task Training 3. Overlearning ## Footnote Each factor influences how trainees acquire and retain information.

Answer 76

Support affects the use of newly acquired skills and knowledge on-the-job. ## Footnote Organizations can create a transfer climate that emphasizes training importance.

Answer 77

Enhancing an executive’s leadership skills and achieving organizational goals. ## Footnote Executive coaching is a specific type of coaching.

Answer 78

Whole-task training is more effective for highly organized tasks with interrelated subtasks. ## Footnote Part-task training is better for tasks that can be easily divided.

Answer 79

Scriven (1967) ## Footnote Scriven's terminology is foundational in the field of evaluation.

Answer 80

To assist with the development and improvement of a program. ## Footnote Formative evaluation focuses on enhancing the program as it is being developed.

Answer 81

To determine whether program outcomes met the program’s goals. ## Footnote Summative evaluation assesses the effectiveness of the completed program.

Answer 82

* Needs assessment * Evaluability assessment * Structured evaluation * Implementation evaluation * Process evaluation ## Footnote Each component serves a specific role in evaluating the program's development.

Answer 83

Outcome evaluation ## Footnote This component assesses if the program achieved its stated goals.

Answer 84

Intended and unintended effects of the program on the organization. ## Footnote Impact evaluation helps understand the broader implications of the program.

Answer 85

* Formative evaluation * Summative evaluation * Confirmative evaluation * Meta-evaluation ## Footnote This model expands upon Scriven's dichotomy by adding confirmative and meta-evaluation.

Answer 86

Evaluation conducted at a later time to evaluate the long-term effects of training. ## Footnote Confirmative evaluation assesses the sustainability of training outcomes.

Answer 87

To assess the reliability and validity of formative, summative, and confirmative evaluations. ## Footnote Meta-evaluation ensures the quality of the evaluation process itself.

Answer 88

* Reaction criteria * Learning criteria * Behavior criteria * Results criteria ## Footnote These levels provide a framework for assessing different aspects of training effectiveness.

Answer 89

Trainees’ impressions of the training. ## Footnote Reaction criteria focus on immediate feedback from participants.

Answer 90

How well trainees acquired the information and skills presented during training. ## Footnote Learning criteria measure knowledge and skill acquisition.

Answer 91

The degree to which trainees’ job performance improved as a result of training. ## Footnote Behavior criteria link training to actual job performance changes.

Answer 92

Effects of training on ROI, customer satisfaction, and other organizational outcomes. ## Footnote Results criteria provide a broader organizational perspective on training effectiveness.

Answer 93

False ## Footnote Results criteria are difficult to assess due to the challenge of isolating training effects from other factors.

Answer 94

1. Growth (birth to 14) 2. Exploration (15 to 24) 3. Establishment (25 to 44) 4. Maintenance (45 to 64) 5. Disengagement (65+)

Answer 95

A person's ability to successfully complete the tasks of his or her stage.

Answer 96

The various life roles a person assumes at different times and in different contexts.

Answer 97

Interactions between internal (personal) factors and external (situational) factors.

Answer 98

1. Realistic 2. Investigative 3. Artistic 4. Social 5. Enterprising 6. Conventional

Answer 99

A high degree of congruence ('goodness-of-fit') between a person's personality and the work environment.

Answer 100

The clear and stable picture of one’s goals, interests, and talents.

Answer 101

1. Satisfaction 2. Satisfactoriness

Answer 102

The employee’s satisfaction with the job, affected by the match between needs and job reinforcers.

Answer 103

The initial anticipation phase, which includes exploration, crystallization, choice, and clarification stages.

Answer 104

1. Initial anticipation phase 2. Implementation phase

Answer 105

Four factors

Answer 106

1. Genetic endowment and special abilities 2. Environmental conditions and events 3. Instrumental and associative learning experiences 4. Task approach skills

Answer 107

Beliefs about one's own attitudes, values, interests, and skills.

Answer 108

Distinguishing between four career concepts based on motives, direction of movement, and frequency of change.

Answer 109

Motivated by power and achievement, involving upward movement with infrequent career changes.

Answer 110

Motivated by personal growth and creativity, involving lateral movements across similar occupations.

Answer 111

Adopt a pluralistic approach that provides opportunities for diverse career experiences.

Answer 112

Managers must: * Use scientific methods to identify the best way to do a job * Ensure workers are scientifically selected and trained * Have an equal division of labor * Cooperate with workers to ensure work consistency with scientific principles ## Footnote Taylor believed workers are primarily motivated by economic gain and advocated linking financial incentives to productivity.

Answer 113

The essential elements include: * Division of labor * Well-defined hierarchy of authority * Formal rules and procedures * Employment decisions based on competence and merit * Written records of decisions and actions * Separation of ownership and management ## Footnote Weber described bureaucracy as an impersonal and rational way to ensure orderly and efficient operations.

Answer 114

Mayo discovered the Hawthorne effect, where productivity increased due to the attention workers received as research participants, regardless of physical work condition changes. ## Footnote He concluded that social factors were more important than physical conditions for work motivation and productivity.

Answer 115

Theory X supervisors believe that subordinates are: * Inherently lazy * Dislike responsibility * Resist change * Concerned only about themselves ## Footnote They feel they must be directive and controlling to ensure workers meet organizational goals.

Answer 116

Theory Y supervisors believe that subordinates: * Enjoy work * Are self-directed and internally motivated * Seek responsibility ## Footnote They aim to provide conditions that allow subordinates to fulfill their own goals while achieving organizational goals.

Answer 117

Organizations share characteristics such as: * Cycles of events * Maintaining homeostasis * Avoiding negative entropy * Functioning according to equifinality and multifinality ## Footnote Equifinality means achieving the same outcome in multiple ways, while multifinality means achieving dissimilar outcomes from the same initial conditions.

Answer 118

The cycles include: * Inputs: materials, information, and other resources * Throughputs: transformation of resources into products, services, and information * Outputs: sending out products, services, and information ## Footnote Consequences of outputs, like profits and customer feedback, are then reintroduced as inputs.

Answer 119

[economic gain]

Answer 120

False ## Footnote Mayo concluded that social factors were more important than physical work conditions.

Answer 121

To provide subordinates with conditions that allow them to fulfill their own goals by achieving organizational goals ## Footnote McGregor believed Theory Y produces the best outcomes for employees and organizations.

Answer 122

A process, a goal, or both ## Footnote Organizational development (OD) is a toolbox of various methods for affecting that change.

Answer 123

1. Unfreezing 2. Changing 3. Refreezing ## Footnote Lewin's model remains influential in understanding organizational change.

Answer 124

Identifying and reducing forces maintaining the undesirable status quo and increasing forces that disrupt it ## Footnote This stage is crucial for preparing the organization for change.

Answer 125

Implementing desired changes to move the organization to a new state of equilibrium ## Footnote This stage is about making the actual changes needed.

Answer 126

Integrating the desired change into organizational values and traditions to stabilize the new state ## Footnote This prevents regression to the prior undesirable state.

Answer 127

1. Entering and contracting 2. Diagnosing 3. Planning and implementing 4. Evaluating and institutionalizing ## Footnote This model incorporates concepts from Lewin's model and others.

Answer 128

Identifying primary problems, relevant members, and selecting an OD practitioner ## Footnote Establishes a collaborative relationship with organization members.

Answer 129

Collecting and analyzing diagnostic information and providing feedback about problems ## Footnote This occurs at the organization, group, and individual levels.

Answer 130

Addressing readiness to change, creating a vision, designing interventions, and formulating an action plan ## Footnote Managing transition and sustaining momentum are also critical.

Answer 131

The implementation and results of OD interventions ## Footnote This phase also involves deciding whether changes should be continued, modified, or suspended.

Answer 132

1. Collect data 2. Provide feedback 3. Develop an action plan ## Footnote Survey feedback is overseen by an OD consultant and involves obtaining employees' attitudes, opinions, and perceptions.

Answer 133

Having employees complete surveys to obtain information on their attitudes, opinions, and perceptions related to work conditions, supervision, company policies, and other issues. ## Footnote The information helps identify strengths and weaknesses within the organization.

Answer 134

Communication, decision-making, problem-solving, interpersonal relationships, and other organizational processes contributing to performance problems. ## Footnote The process consultant helps organizations learn to diagnose and resolve their own problems.

Answer 135

Groups of employees with total responsibility and control over their own work, including budgeting, task assignments, methods for completing tasks, and performance appraisal. ## Footnote SMWTs do not have a supervisor and leadership roles may change based on expertise.

Answer 136

An organization’s technology or structure to improve work methods, work content, employee relationships, and reduce costs. ## Footnote Examples include business process reengineering, job enrichment, and alternative work schedules.

Answer 137

A method to increase organizational efficiency by radically redesigning core processes. ## Footnote This approach was notably discussed by Hammer & Champy in 1993.

Answer 138

Designing a job to provide opportunities for responsibility, challenge, and advancement, enhancing worker satisfaction and motivation. ## Footnote This concept was originally described by Herzberg in 1966.

Answer 139

A work schedule that reduces the number of workdays by increasing hours worked each day, e.g., 10 hours a day for four days. ## Footnote Research shows it positively affects job satisfaction but has unclear effects on absenteeism.

Answer 140

Employees must work a total number of hours each day during a core time but have flexibility in starting and ending times. ## Footnote Studies indicate flextime strongly reduces absenteeism.

Answer 141

* Continuous improvement * Top management commitment to quality * Employee involvement * Focus on customer satisfaction * Data-driven decision-making ## Footnote TQM emphasizes incremental changes to all processes.

Answer 142

Small groups of employees who meet regularly to identify and discuss problems related to quality and productivity. ## Footnote They provide management with recommendations for resolving identified issues.

Answer 143

A continuous process of measuring products, services, and practices against major competitors or industry leaders to identify improvement areas. ## Footnote Its purpose is to enhance organizational processes and productivity.

Answer 144

An approach to quality management that trains employees in statistical analysis, project management, and problem-solving methods to reduce product defect rates. ## Footnote This method is discussed by Landy & Conte in 2016.

Answer 145

Identifying the unique and best aspects of the organization and generating ideas to build on them. ## Footnote It combines elements of social constructionism and positive psychology.

Answer 146

* Discovery (appreciate 'what is') * Dream (envision 'what could be') * Design (determine 'what should be') * Delivery/Destiny (sustain 'what will be') ## Footnote This cycle was detailed by Ludema, Cooperrider, & Barrett in 2006.

Answer 147

To provide stakeholders with a road map describing the sequence of related events connecting the need for the planned program with the program’s desired results ## Footnote W. K. Kellogg Foundation, 2004, p.3

Answer 148

The human, financial, organizational, and community resources needed to support the program ## Footnote Examples include managers, consultants, data sources, funding sources

Answer 149

The processes and actions needed to produce the program’s outputs ## Footnote Examples include developing training materials and conducting training sessions

Answer 150

The direct, tangible results or products of program activities ## Footnote Examples include predicted level of employee satisfaction and number of students participating in the program

Answer 151

The short-, intermediate-, and long-term changes or benefits expected from the program’s activities and outputs ## Footnote Examples include changes in knowledge and skills of managerial candidates and reduction in students’ risk for substance abuse

Answer 152

False ## Footnote Some authors distinguish between them, with program theory related to assumptions and program logic model as a tool for describing those assumptions

Answer 153

A team of people involved in the program’s development, implementation, and/or evaluation ## Footnote This construction happens during the planning stage of the program

Answer 154

A flow chart that includes components connected by arrows representing causal relationships ## Footnote These components illustrate the flow from inputs to outcomes

Answer 155

[goals] ## Footnote This is typically the initial component of a more complex logic model

Answer 156

Employee wellness program, management training program, substance abuse prevention program for high school students ## Footnote These are examples of various types of programs that can utilize logic models

Answer 157

As assumptions about resources and activities and how these lead to realizing intended outcomes ## Footnote This definition highlights the conceptual framework behind program development

Answer 158

A statement describing the expected long-term impact of the program on the organization or community ## Footnote This adds depth to the evaluation of the program's effectiveness

Answer 159

.27 ## Footnote This indicates a low to moderate correlation.

Answer 160

* Extraversion: .31 * Conscientiousness: .28 ## Footnote These correlations were found in the meta-analysis by Judge, Bono, Ilies, and Gerehardt (2002).

Answer 161

* Initiating structure * Consideration ## Footnote Initiating structure is task-oriented, while consideration is person-oriented.

Answer 162

It is more strongly associated with satisfaction and motivation ## Footnote This finding was supported by the meta-analysis by Judge, Piccolo, & Ilies (2004).

Answer 163

No, they are not rated differently ## Footnote This conclusion is supported by the studies conducted by Paustian-Underdahl, Walker, & Woehr (2014).

Answer 164

Social service agencies and other traditionally 'feminine' settings ## Footnote This was noted in research by Eagly, Karau, & Makhijani (1995).

Answer 165

Participative (democratic) style ## Footnote Male leaders are more likely to adopt a directive (autocratic) style (Eagly & Johnson, 1990).

Answer 166

* Reward power * Coercive power * Legitimate power * Expert power * Referent power ## Footnote These bases influence how leaders can affect their subordinates.

Answer 167

* Reward power * Legitimate power ## Footnote These bases are effective in gaining compliance according to Yukl (2002).

Answer 168

coercive power ## Footnote This refers to the ability to influence through fear of punishment.

Answer 169

True ## Footnote This behavior is characteristic of transactional leadership.

Answer 170

It is more strongly associated with leader, group, and organization performance ## Footnote This was highlighted in the findings by Judge, Piccolo, & Ilies (2004).

Answer 171

Transformational leadership style ## Footnote Female leaders also provide employees with contingency rewards characteristic of transactional leadership.

Answer 172

The assumption that the most effective leadership style depends on the favorableness of the situation.

Answer 173

Using the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale.

Answer 174

They are task-oriented and describe their least preferred coworker in negative terms.

Answer 175

They are person-oriented and describe their least preferred coworker in positive terms.

Answer 176

* Leader-member relations * Task structure * Position power

Answer 177

Very unfavorable and very favorable situations.

Answer 178

Moderately favorable situations.

Answer 179

The optimal leadership style depends on a subordinate’s job maturity.

Answer 180

* Telling * Selling * Participating * Delegating

Answer 181

A telling leader.

Answer 182

To act as facilitators who help subordinates achieve their own goals.

Answer 183

* Directive * Achievement-oriented * Supportive * Participative

Answer 184

When subordinates are dogmatic or authoritarian and the task is ambiguous and complex.

Answer 185

A decision-making process.

Answer 186

A decision tree to help leaders determine the optimal leadership strategy.

Answer 187

* Highly autocratic (make the decision alone) * Highly democratic (let group members make the decision)

Answer 188

The quality of interactions between the leader and the subordinate.

Answer 189

In-group members receive more attention and support from the leader.

Answer 190

* Idealized influence * Inspirational motivation * Intellectual stimulation * Individualized consideration

Answer 191

The use of contingent rewards and management-by-exception.

Answer 192

When leaders closely monitor behaviors and take immediate action to correct mistakes.

Answer 193

When leaders do not closely monitor behaviors and intervene only after serious mistakes.

Answer 194

Repetitive and routine decisions governed by rules, policies, and procedures, often made by lower-level personnel ## Footnote Examples include decisions related to hiring, ordering, and billing.

Answer 195

Non-repetitive and complex decisions requiring unique or creative solutions, relying on the decision-maker’s judgment ## Footnote Examples include developing new products or responding to legal issues.

Answer 196

A model assuming decision-makers choose the optimal alternative after objectively evaluating all possible options ## Footnote Also known as the classical model and the rational-economic model.

Answer 197

Rational decision-making is limited by factors like time restrictions and cognitive abilities, leading to 'satisficing' ## Footnote Proposed by Simon in 1957.

Answer 198

Decisions made by individuals or groups constrained by routines and standard operating procedures, often involving incremental choices ## Footnote Developed by Cyert & March in 1963.

Answer 199

A phenomenon where a cohesive in-group's desire for unanimity overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives ## Footnote Defined by Janis in 1982.

Answer 200

High cohesiveness, strong directive leadership, isolation from outside opinions, and time pressure ## Footnote Symptoms include illusions of invulnerability and self-censorship.

Answer 201

The tendency of groups to make more extreme decisions than individual members would alone ## Footnote Can lead to more risky or more cautious decisions.

Answer 202

When the task is complex and group members have complementary skills ## Footnote Groups may struggle with poorly structured tasks requiring high creativity.

Answer 203

Remaining neutral, encouraging expression of opinions, appointing a devil's advocate, and seeking outside opinions ## Footnote These strategies help to foster a more open discussion.

Answer 204

False ## Footnote The effectiveness of group vs. individual decisions depends on task nature and situation.

Answer 205

[bounded rationality model]

Answer 206

* Illusions of invulnerability * Collective rationalization * Excessive stereotyping * Self-censorship * Presence of mindguards ## Footnote These symptoms can hinder effective decision-making.

Answer 207

The tendency of groups to make more risky decisions than individuals would make alone ## Footnote This is part of the broader concept of group polarization.

Answer 208

The assumption that humans are motivated to maintain a state of equilibrium (homeostasis) ## Footnote Hull proposed that an unfulfilled innate physiological need causes an uncomfortable state of disequilibrium, driving behaviors to restore equilibrium.

Answer 209

Does not explain drives unrelated to physiological needs or behaviors when no physiological need is present ## Footnote Examples include the drive to seek power or eating in the absence of hunger.

Answer 210

The impact of acquired psychological needs shaped by early experiences ## Footnote It distinguishes between three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation.

Answer 211

Desire for success in accomplishing goals, preference for moderate difficulty tasks, and desire for feedback ## Footnote They prefer personal responsibility and do not delegate tasks.

Answer 212

* Physiological * Safety * Social * Esteem * Self-actualization ## Footnote These needs emerge in a hierarchical order from most basic to most complex.

Answer 213

The lowest unfulfilled need in the hierarchy ## Footnote Once satisfied, it ceases to motivate behavior.

Answer 214

* Pay * Benefits * Working conditions ## Footnote These factors fulfill lower-order needs and do not contribute to satisfaction or motivation when adequate.

Answer 215

* Opportunities for responsibility * Challenge * Advancement ## Footnote These factors fulfill higher-order needs and contribute to both satisfaction and motivation.

Answer 216

Jobs vary in five core characteristics affecting three critical psychological states ## Footnote The characteristics are skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.

Answer 217

* Meaningfulness of work * Responsibility for outcomes * Knowledge of results ## Footnote These states positively affect motivation, satisfaction, and performance.

Answer 218

Social comparisons of input and outcome ratios ## Footnote Workers compare their contributions and rewards to those of others in similar jobs.

Answer 219

When a worker perceives their input-outcome ratio to be less than that of others ## Footnote Motivates the worker to increase work quality or quantity.

Answer 220

When a worker perceives their input-outcome ratio to be greater than that of others ## Footnote Motivates the worker to decrease work quality or quantity or seek better outcomes.

Answer 221

* Expectancy * Instrumentality * Valence ## Footnote A worker's motivation is high only when all three factors are positive.

Answer 222

The worker's acceptance of and commitment to goals is the most important contributor to motivation ## Footnote Goals should be specific and moderately difficult for maximum commitment.

Answer 223

certain circumstances ## Footnote Participation increases commitment particularly for workers with a high need for achievement.

Answer 224

A method of designing jobs to provide motivator factors ## Footnote It tends to have the most positive outcomes for younger, well-educated workers with a high need for achievement.

Answer 225

True ## Footnote It alleviates boredom but does not significantly affect satisfaction and motivation.

Answer 226

Group goals result in better performance than individual goals under high interdependence ## Footnote Group goals alone can be as effective as group goals plus individual goals.

Answer 227

Job satisfaction and organizational commitment

Answer 228

* Self-esteem * Affective disposition * Genetic predisposition

Answer 229

Higher levels of self-esteem are associated with higher levels of both job satisfaction and life satisfaction

Answer 230

The tendency to respond to a variety of situations in a similarly favorable or unfavorable way

Answer 231

About 30% of observed variability in job satisfaction scores is attributable to genetic factors

Answer 232

* Distributive justice * Procedural justice * Interactional justice

Answer 233

The fairness of the distribution of resources and other outcomes

Answer 234

The fairness of the procedures used to determine outcomes

Answer 235

The fairness of the way that outcomes are communicated to workers

Answer 236

* Interpersonal * Informational

Answer 237

Job satisfaction has been linked to longevity and psychological and physical health

Answer 238

The average correlation coefficient for job satisfaction and performance was .17

Answer 239

They argued that the methodology was flawed and produced a coefficient of .30

Answer 240

* Affective commitment * Continuance commitment * Normative commitment

Answer 241

The extent of an employee’s emotional attachment to the organization

Answer 242

The extent to which an employee believes he or she must stay with the organization for financial reasons or lack of alternative opportunities

Answer 243

The extent to which an employee is loyal to the organization and feels obligated to stay with it

Answer 244

Any force that pushes a psychological or physical function beyond its range of stability, producing a strain within the individual

Answer 245

* Alarm reaction * Resistance * Exhaustion

Answer 246

The hypothalamus secretes CRH, activating the sympathetic nervous system and stimulating hormone release

Answer 247

Some physiological functions return to normal while cortisol circulates at elevated levels

Answer 248

The pituitary and adrenal glands lose the ability to maintain elevated hormone levels, leading to breakdown of physiological processes

Answer 249

* Suppression of the immune system * Increased blood pressure * Elevated risk for headaches, indigestion, insomnia

Answer 250

It can damage cells in the hippocampus, impairing the ability to form new long-term memories

Answer 251

Lack of control, work-family conflict, downsizing ## Footnote These sources can significantly impact employee well-being and job satisfaction.

Answer 252

Linked to higher stress levels, psychological and physical symptoms, poorer job outcomes ## Footnote Spector’s (1986) meta-analysis found low perceived control relates to job dissatisfaction and health problems.

Answer 253

Conflict between roles at work and in personal life ## Footnote Defined by Landy & Conte (2016) as a major source of stress.

Answer 254

Lower job and life satisfaction ## Footnote Kossek & Ozeki (1998) found that employees with high conflict report less satisfaction.

Answer 255

Reported similar levels of work-family conflict ## Footnote Gender differences were small and context-dependent.

Answer 256

Planned elimination of jobs to maximize efficiency and reduce labor costs ## Footnote Affects both those who lose jobs and those who remain.

Answer 257

Characterized by reduced job satisfaction, anxiety, depression, and guilt ## Footnote Survivors feel a sense of unfairness and loss of control.

Answer 258

Exhaustion, depersonalization, sense of inefficacy ## Footnote Defined in multiple studies (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996; Maslach et al., 2001).

Answer 259

Increase in time and effort without productivity gain ## Footnote Often accompanied by irritability and negativity.

Answer 260

Mismatch between the individual and work environment aspects: * Workload * Control * Reward * Community * Fairness * Values ## Footnote Proposed by Maslach, Schaufeli, and Leiter (2001).

Answer 261

Hardiness, organization-based self-esteem (OBSE), Type A behavior ## Footnote Each characteristic influences stress resilience differently.

Answer 262

Increases resistance to stress; characterized by control, commitment, and challenge perception ## Footnote Identified by Kobasa (1982) as beneficial for health.

Answer 263

Employees' perceptions of their value as organization members ## Footnote Linked to job satisfaction and stress responses.

Answer 264

Associated with increased susceptibility to stress effects ## Footnote Characterized by time urgency, competitiveness, and hostility.

Answer 265

Hostility ## Footnote Evidence suggests hostility is a significant risk factor (Krantz & McCeney, 2002; Newman et al., 2011).

Answer 266

To identify how a job is performed, the conditions under which it is performed, and the personal requirements it takes to perform the job. ## Footnote Job analysis serves functions such as writing job descriptions, developing performance measures, determining training needs, and job design decisions.

Answer 267

* Observing employees * Interviewing employees and supervisors * Surveys and questionnaires * Electronic performance monitoring ## Footnote These methods help gather comprehensive data about job performance and requirements.

Answer 268

It focuses on the tasks that must be accomplished to achieve desired job outcomes. ## Footnote Task analysis is a work-oriented approach that involves developing a comprehensive list of job tasks.

Answer 269

It focuses on the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) required to accomplish job tasks. ## Footnote The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) is an example of a worker-oriented job analysis tool.

Answer 270

A worker-oriented approach that focuses on core competencies required to perform jobs within an organization, linked to its values, goals, and strategies. ## Footnote Examples of core competencies include professional integrity and staying current with technological advances.

Answer 271

* Identifying job selection measures * Determining content of training programs * Identifying future job requirements ## Footnote Competency modeling helps align employee capabilities with organizational needs.

Answer 272

To facilitate decisions related to compensation. ## Footnote Job evaluation helps establish comparable worth among jobs that require similar skills and responsibilities.

Answer 273

The principle that workers performing jobs requiring the same skills and responsibilities should be paid the same. ## Footnote This principle has been primarily applied to address the gender gap in wages.

Answer 274

A method that assigns points to a job’s compensable factors to determine its monetary value. ## Footnote Compensable factors include effort, skill, responsibility, and working conditions.

Answer 275

Measures of job performance that provide feedback and evaluate employee performance for decisions about raises and promotions. ## Footnote These measures are crucial for employee development and organizational effectiveness.

Answer 276

* Objective measures * Subjective measures ## Footnote Objective measures provide quantitative data, while subjective measures involve performance ratings.

Answer 277

Quantitative information such as productivity and the number of errors, accidents, and absences. ## Footnote While valuable, they may not provide complete performance information.

Answer 278

Performance ratings that assess aspects of performance not captured by objective measures. ## Footnote They consider situational factors but can be influenced by rater biases.

Answer 279

True ## Footnote Subjective measures provide nuanced insights into employee performance.

Answer 280

Relative and absolute rating scales ## Footnote Relative rating scales compare employees to each other, while absolute rating scales evaluate employees independently of others.

Answer 281

Comparing each employee to all other employees in pairs on job performance dimensions ## Footnote This method helps alleviate biases like central tendency, leniency, and strictness.

Answer 282

It can be very time-consuming when rating many employees ## Footnote This method requires extensive comparisons, which may not be practical for large groups.

Answer 283

Requires assigning a certain percentage of employees to prespecified performance categories ## Footnote Examples of categories include poor, below average, average, above average, and excellent.

Answer 284

Provides inaccurate information when employee performance does not match prespecified categories ## Footnote This can occur when all employees perform at an average or above average level.

Answer 285

Identifying employee behaviors associated with exceptionally poor and good performance ## Footnote CIT relies on observations and interviews to gather critical incidents.

Answer 286

It can be time-consuming to develop and focuses on extreme behaviors ## Footnote CIT is also job-specific, requiring new incidents for different roles.

Answer 287

Raters rate performance on several dimensions using a Likert-type scale ## Footnote Ratings typically range from 1 (poor performance) to 5 (excellent performance).

Answer 288

They are vulnerable to rater biases ## Footnote This can lead to inaccuracies in performance evaluations.

Answer 289

Each point on the scale is anchored with descriptions of specific behaviors ## Footnote BARS are developed with input from job incumbents and supervisors.

Answer 290

An ideal measure assessing all important contributors to job performance ## Footnote It contrasts with the actual criterion, which is what is measured in practice.

Answer 291

Aspects of performance not assessed by the criterion ## Footnote For example, a test that omits important job-related knowledge can be deficient.

Answer 292

When the criterion measure is affected by factors unrelated to job performance ## Footnote This can include biases such as a supervisor's knowledge of an employee's background.

Answer 293

When a rater's rating on one dimension affects ratings on others ## Footnote This can be positive or negative depending on the rater's perception.

Answer 294

When a rater's ratings are influenced by the performance of a previously evaluated employee ## Footnote This can lead to unfair comparisons and skewed ratings.

Answer 295

When raters give higher ratings to ratees they perceive as similar to themselves ## Footnote This bias can affect the objectivity of performance evaluations.

Answer 296

* Using relative rating scales * Anchoring points on absolute scales with specific job behaviors * Providing adequate rater training ## Footnote Frame-of-reference training is particularly effective in enhancing accuracy.

Answer 297

False ## Footnote The central tendency bias occurs when raters give average ratings regardless of actual performance.