Intro To Clinical Anatomy Flashcards
(198 cards)
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Systemic anatomy
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Organized by organ systems
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Regional anatomy
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Organization of body into parts
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Locomotor system
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Skeletal, articular, and muscular systems
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Integumentary system
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Skin and it’s appendages such as hair and nails
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Skeletal system
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Bones and cartilage
Support and protection
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Muscular system
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Consists of muscles
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Articular system
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Consists of joints and associated ligaments
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Nervous system
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CNS (brain and spinal cord) and pns (nerves and ganglia)
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Circulatory system
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Cardiovascular system: heart and blood vessels
Lymphoid system: consists of a network of lymphatic vessels that withdraw excess tissue fluid from the body’s interstitial (intercellular) fluid compartment, filters it through lymph nodes and returns it to the blood stream
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Digestive or alimentary system
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Organs and glands associated with ingestion, mastication, deglutition (swallowing) digestion, and absorption of food and elimination of feces
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Respiratory system
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Consists of air passages and lungs that supply oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide
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Urinary system
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Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
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Reproductive system
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Obstetrics and gynecology, andrology for males
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Endocrinology
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Discrete ductless glands and other cells
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Clinical (applied) anatomy
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Aspects of the structure and function of body
Encompasses both regional and systemic approaches
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Median or median sagittal plane
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Vertical plane passing longitudinally through center of body dividing into right and left halves
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Sagittal planes
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Vertical planes passing through parallel to the median plane
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Frontal (coronal) plane
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Vertical planes dividing into anterior and posterior
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Transverse planes or axial
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Divides into superior and inferior
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Inferomedial
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Nearer to the feet, closer to the median plane
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Superolateral
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Nearer to head and farther from median plane
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Dorsum
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Refers to superior or dorsal (back) surface of any part that protrudes anteriorly from the body
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Ipsilateral
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Same side of body
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Contralateral
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Opposite side of body
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Superficial
Nearer to surface
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Intermediate
Between a superficial and deep structure
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Deep
Farther from surface
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Medial
Nearer to median plane
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Lateral
Farther from median plane
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Posterior or dorsal
Nearer to back
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Inferior or caudal
Nearer to feet
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Anterior or ventral
Nearer to front
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Distal
Farther from trunk or point of origin
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Proximal
Nearer to trunk or point of origin
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Skin provides
Protection for the body
Containment of tissues. Organs and vital substances of the body, preventing dehydration
Heat regulation through sweat glands, blood vessels and fat deposits
Sensation
Synthesis and storage of vitamin d
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Epidermis
Keratinized stratified epithelium
Avascular
Replaced every 25-45 days
Afferent nerve endings
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Dermis
Dense layer of interlacing collagen and elastic fibers
| Fibers provide skin tone and account for strength and toughness of skin
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Direction of collagen fibers
Determines tension or cleavage lines and wrinkle lines
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Deep layer of dermis
Hair follicles with associated smooth arrector muscles and sebaceous glands
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Subcutaneous tissue or superficial fascia
Loose connective tissue and fat
Between dermis and deep fascia
Deepest parts of sweat glands, blood and lymphatic vessels, cutaneous nerves
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Skin ligaments
Retinacula cutis
| Extend through subcutaneous tissue and attach deep surface of dermis to deep fascia
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Deep fascia
Dense, organized connective tissue layer devoid of fat that envelops most of the body deep to the skin and subcutaneous surface
Invest deeper structures: investing fascia
Divide muscles into groups: inter muscular septa
Lie between musculoskeletal walls and serous membranes lining body cavities: sub serous fascia
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Retinacula
Formed by deep fascia
| Hold tendons in place during joint movement
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Bursae
Closed sacs containing fluid
Formed by deep fascia
Prevent friction and enable structures to move freely over another
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Fascial planes
Potential spaces between adjacent fascias or fascia lined structures
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Axial skeleton
Head, neck and trunk
| Cranium or skull, cervical vertebrae, ribs, sternum, vertebrae and sacrum
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Appendicular skeleton
Bones of limbs including those of pectoral and pelvic girdles
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Bone provides
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Protection
Support
Mechanical basis for movement
Storage for salts like calcium
Blood cells
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Cartilage
Semirigid avascular connective tissue
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Articular cartilage
Cap articulating surfaces of bones participating in a synovial joint
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Periosteum
Fibrous connective tissue covering surrounding bone
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Perichondrium
Surrounding cartilage elements excluding articular cartilage
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Structure of bones
Superficial layer of compact bone on top of spongy or trabecular or cancellous bone except where it is replaced by medullary cavity
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Compact bone
Provides strength for weight bearing
| In long bones designed for rigidity and attachment of muscles and ligaments, compact bone is most in middle of shaft
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Heterotopic bones
Bones form in soft tissues
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Long bones
Tubular structures like humerus and phalanges
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Short bones
Cuboidal and found only in ankle and wrist
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Flat bones
Seve protective functions like those of cranium
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Irregular bones
Those in face
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Condyle
Rounded articular area
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Sesamoid bones
Develop in certain tendons like patella
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Crest
Ridge of bone
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Epicondyle
Eminence superior to a condyle
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Facet
Smooth flat area, usually covered with cartilage here a bone articulates with another bone
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Foramen
Passage through a bone
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Fossa
Hollow or depressed area
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Line or linea
Linear elevation
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Malleolus
Rounded prominence
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Notch
Indentation at the edge of a bone
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Process
Projecting spine like part
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Protuberance
Projection of bone
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Spine
Thorn like process
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Trochanter
Large, blunt elevation
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Tubercle
Small, raised eminence
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Tuberosity
Large rounded elevation
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collar of callus
fibroblasts create it by secreting collagen in the repair of a fracture to hold the bones together
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In general, how are bones developed?
All bones derived from mesenchyme (embryonic connective tissue) by intramembranous ossification (directly from mesenchyme) and endochondral ossification (from cartilage derived from mesenchyme)
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Intramembranous ossification
Mesenchymal models of bone form during the embryonic period and direct ossification of the mesenchyme begins in the fetal period
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endochondral ossification
cartilage models of bones form from mesenchyme during the fetal period, and bone subsequently replaces most of the cartilage
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How long bones grow
Endochondral ossification
Mesenchymal cells condense and differentiate into chondroblasts
form cartilaginous bone model
in middle of bone model, cartilage calcifies and periosteal capillaries grow into the calcified cartilage
capillaries initiate primary ossification center
secondary ossification centers appear in other parts of developing bone after birth
at end of growth, primary and secondary fuse and epiphyseal plate is lost
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periosteal bud
periosteal capillaries with the associated osteogenic cells
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diaphysis
shaft of a bone ossified from primary ossification center
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epiphyses
ossified from secondary ossification centers
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metaphysis
flared part of diaphysis nearest to epiphysis
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epiphyseal plate
cartilage that intervenes between diaphysis and epiphysis during growth
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epiphyseal line
fusion of diaphysis and epiphysis
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synostosis
process of fusion of epiphyseal plate
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nutrient arteries
one or more per bone
arise outside periosteum, pass through shaft of long bone via nutrient foramina and split in the medullary cavity into longitudinal branches
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nutrient arteries supply
bone marrow, spongy bone and deeper portions of compact bone
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periosteal arteries
small branches supply most of compact bone
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metaphysial and epiphyseal arteries
supply ends of bones. arise mainly from arteries that supply the joints
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veins
acoompany arteries through nutrient foramina. many large veins leave through foramina near articular ends of bones
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periosteal nerves
periosteum richly supplied with sensory nerves (periosteal nerves) that carry pain fibers
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vasomotor nerves
cause constriction of dilation of blood vessels, regulating blood flow through the bone marrow
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accessory bones
also called supernumerary bones
additional ossification centers appear and form extra bones. on of centers fails to fuse with main bone, giving appearance of an extra bone, but is a missing part of the main bone
common in the foot
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criteria for determining bone age
appearance of calcified material in diaphysis and or epiphyses
disappearance of dark line representing the epiphyseal plate
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fusion of epiphyses with the diaphysis occurs
1 to 2 years earlier in girls than in boys
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separation of epiphysis
displaced epiphyseal plate can occur in children as opposed to a fracture in an adult
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avascular necrosis
death of bone tissue due to a loss of blood supply to an epiphysis or other parts pof a bone
after every fracture, small areas of adjacent bone undergo necrosis
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degenerative joint disease
articulation becomes vulnerable to repeated friction that occurs during joint movements
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joint
an articulation or the lace of union or junction between two or more rigid components
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three types of joints
fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial
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fibrous joints
united by fibrous tissue
| syndesmosis, gomphosis
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syndesmosis
type of fibrous joint that unites bones with a sheet of fibrous tissue, either a ligament of fibrous membrane. partially moveable
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gomphosis
dento-alveolar syndesmosis
| type of fibrous joint in which a peg like fibrous process stabilizes a tooth and provides proprioceptive information
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cartilaginous joints
articulating structures are united by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage
synchondroses
symphyses
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primary cartilaginous joints
synchondroses
united by hyaline cartilage.
permit growth of the length of the bone and allow slight bending during early life until the epiphyseal plate converts to bone and epiphysis fuses with diaphysis
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secondary cartilaginous joints
symphyses
| strong, slightly mobile joints united by fibrocartilage
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synovial joints
articular cavity is a potential space that contains synovial fluid
most common type
usually reinforced by accessory ligaments
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synovial fluid
serves dual function of nourishing articular cartilage and lubricating joint surface
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other distinguishing characteristics of synovial joints
fibrocartilaginous articular discs
menisci
present when articulating surfaces of bones are incongrous
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articular arteries
arise from vessels around joint and feed it
| anastomose (communicate) to form networks (peri-articular arterial anastomoses) which ensure a continuous blood supply
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articular veins
communicating veins that accompany the arteries and like the arteries, are located in the joint capsule, mostly in the synovial membrane
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articular nerves
in the distal parts of limbs, branches of cutaneous nerves supplying the overlying skin
otherwise, most are branches of nerves that supply the muscles that cross and therefore move the joint
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Hilton law
nerves supplying a joint also supply the muscles moving the joint and the skin covering the attachments
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pain fibers in synovial joints
numerous in the fibrous layer of the joint capsule and associated ligaments
synovial membrane relatively insensitive
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types of synovial joints
pivot, ball and socket, plane, hinge, saddle, condyloid
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pivot joint
uniaxial
rounded process of bone fits into a bony ligamentous socket, permitting rotation
atlanto-axial joint
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ball and socket joint
multiaxial
rounded head fits into a concavity, permitting movement on several aces
hip joint
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plane joint
usually uniaxial
permit gliding or sliding movements
acromioclavicular joint
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hinge joint
uniaxial
permit flexion and extension only
elbow joint
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saddle joint
biaxial
saddle shaped heads permit movement in two different planes
carpometacarpal joint
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condyloid joint
biaxial
permit flexion and extension, abduction and adduction, circumduction
metacarpophalangeal joint
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Muscle fibers
muscle cells
called so because long and narrow when relaxed
specialized contractile cells
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Fascicles
associated connective tissue conveys nerve fibers and capillaries to muscle fibers as it binds them
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skeletal muscle function
moves bones and other structures
static support
give form to body
provide heat
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cardiac striated muscle function
forms most of walls of heart and adjacent parts of the great vessels
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smooth muscle function
forms part of walls of most vessels and hollow organs
| moves substances through viscera such as intestine and controls movement through blood vessels
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structure of skeletal muscle
fleshy contractile portion (one or more heads or bellies) composed of skeletal striated muscle
noncontractile portion composed mainly of collagen bundles
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collagen bundles of skeletal muscle
tendons: rounded
aponeuroses: flat sheets
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length of a muscle
include bellies and tendons
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pennate muscles
feather like in arrangement of their fascicles (fiber bundles)
unipennate, bipennate, multipennate
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fusiform muscles
spindle shaped
| round, thick belly, tapered ends
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parallel muscles
fascicles lie parallel to long axis of muscle
| flat muscles with parallel fibers often have aponeuroses
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convergent muscles
broad attachment from which the fascicles converge to a single tendon
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circular muscles
surround a body opening or orifice constricting it when contracted
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digastric muscles
feature two bellies in series sharing a common intermediate tendon
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shortening of muscles
when contract, shorten to about 70% of resting length
| long parallel fascicles shorten the most
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muscle power increases
as number of cells increases
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most powerful muscles
shorter, wide pennate muscles
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reflexive contraction
automatic and not voluntary
respiratory movements of the diaphragm
muscle stretch evokes reflexive contraction produced by tapping a tendon with a reflex hammer
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tonic contraction
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slight contraction (muscle tone) that does not produce movement or active resistance but gives the muscle firmness
assisting the stability of joints and the maintenence of posture
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phasic contraction
isometric contractions: muscle length remains the same: no movement but muscle tension is increased above tonic levels
isotonic contractions: muscle changes length to produce movement
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isotonic contractions
concentric contraction: muscle shortening
| eccentric contraction: progressive relaxation of a contracted muscle
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structural unit of a muscle
muscle fiber
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endomysium
covers individual muscle fibers
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perimysium
surrounds group of fibers
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epimysium
entire muscle surrounded
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functional unit of a muscle
motor unit: motor neuron and muscle fibers
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prime mover or agonist
main muscle responsible for producing a specific movement of the body
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fixators
steady the proximal parts of a limb while movements are occuring in distal parts
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synergist
complements the action of prime movers
| for example, by preventing movement of the intervening joint when a prime mover passes over more than one joint
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antagonist
a muscle that opposes the action of a prime mover. as prime mover contracts, antagonist progressively relaxes, producing a smooth movement
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myocardium
forms muscular wall of heart, made of cardiac striated muscle
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smooth muscle
absence of microscopic striations
forms large part of middle coat or layer (tunica media) of the walls of most blood vessels and muscular part of wall of digestive tract and ducts
innervated by ANS
found in arrectors in skin and in the eyeball;
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muscle testing
1. active: resist movements performed by examiner
| 2. examiner performs movements against resistance
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electromyography
EMG
surface electrodes over a muscle and perform movements
tonus: baseline activity
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compensatory hypertrophy
myocardium responds to increasing demands by increasing size of cells
smooth muscle cells also do so during pregnancy in uterus
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hypertrophy
increase in size
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hyperplasia
increase in number
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pulmonary circulation
right heart propels low oxygen blood returned to it into the lungs where carbon dioxide is exchanged for oxygen
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systemic circulation
oxygen rich blood returned to the left heart is pumped to the remainder of the body, exchanging oxygen and nutrients for carbon dioxide
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order of blood vessels
arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins, IVC, SVC
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tunics of vessels of circulatory system
tunica intima: thin endothelial lining of vessels
tunica media: middle smooth muscle layer
tunica adventitia: outer connective tissue coat
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conducting arteries
large elastic arteries
have many elastic layers in their walls
aorta and branches from arch of aorta
elasticity allows maintenence of blood pressure because return to normal between cardiac contractions
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distributing arteries
medium muscular arteries
walls that contain mostly smooth muscle, circularly arranged
femoral artery
ability to decrease diameter regulates flow of blood to different parts of body
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small arteries and arterioles
relatively narrow lumina and thick muscular walls
| arterial pressure in vascular system regulated by degree of tonus in the smooth muscle of arteriolar walls
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veins
return poorly oxygenated blood to heart from capillary beds
| walls are thinner than those of companion arteries
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venous plexuses
venules unite to form larger veins that usually form plexuses
dorsal venous arch of foot
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medium veins
in limbs and other location where the flow of blood is opposed by pull of gravity with valves that permit blood to flow toward the heart but not in reverse direction
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large veins
SVC and IVC
| characterized by wide bundles of longitudinal smooth muscle and a well developed tunica adventitia
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systemic veins
more variable than arteries and more frequently form anastomoses
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vascular sheath
veins that accompany deep arteries (accompanying veins) surround them in a branching network and occupy a relatively unyielding vascular sheath with artery they accompany
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anastomoses
communications between multiple branches of an artery provide numerous potentisl detous for blood flow
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collateral circulation
ensures blood supply to structures distal to blockage
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terminal arteries
arteries that do not anastomose with adjacent arteries
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functional terminal arteries
arteries with ineffectual anastomoses
| suppl segments of brain, liver, kidney, spleen and intestines
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arteriosclerosis
hardening of arteries
| group of diseases characterized by thickening and loss of elasticity of arterial walls
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atherosclerosis
common form of arteriosclerosis associated with buildup of fat (cholesterol) in arterial walls
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atheromatous plaque
calcium deposits form it, resulting in arterial narrowing and irregularity
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varicose veins
abnormally swollen, twisted veins, most often seen in the legs
walls of veins lose their elasticity, become weak and dilate under pressure of supporting a column of blood against gravity
valve cusps do not meet or have been destroyed by inflammation. incompetent valves, column of blood ascending toward heart is unbroken, placing increased pressure on weakened walls of veins and exacerbating varicosities
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capillaries
simple endothelial tubes connecting arterial and venous sides of circulation
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capillary beds
networks between arterioles and venules
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arteriovenous anastomoses (AV shunts)
sites of communications between small arteries and veins proximal to capillary beds like in fingers
permit blood to pass directly from arterial to venous side of circulation without passing through capillaries
numerous in skin, have impt role in conserving body heat
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lymphatic system
provides for drainage of surplus tissue fluid and leaked plasma proteins to bloodstream and for removal of cellular debris and infection
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lymph
surplus extracellular tissue fluid
| clear and watery and similar in composition to blood plasma
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lymphatic plexuses
networks of lymphatic capillaries that originate in extracellular spaces of most tissues
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lymphatic vessels (lymphatics)
body wide network of thin walled vessels with abundant valves originating from lymphatic plexuses along which lymph nodes are located
occur almost everywhere blood capillaries are found except teeth, bone, bone marrow and entire CNS
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lymph nodes
small masses of lymphatic tissue through which lymph is filtered on its way to venous system
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lymphocytes
circulating cells of immune system that react against foreign materials
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lymphoid organs
sits that produce lymphocytes
spleen, thymus, lymph nodes
walls of digestive tract
myeloid tissue in red bone marrow
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right lymphatic duct
drains lymph from bodys right upper quadrant (right side of head, neck and thorax and entire right upper limb)
ends in right subclavian vein at its angle of juncton with right internal jugular vein at right venous angle
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thoracic duct
drains lymph from reminder of body
begins in abdomen as cisterna chyli
ascends through thorax and enters junction of left internal jugular and left subclavian veins called left venous angle
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lymphangitis
refer to secondary inflammation of lymphatic vessels
| occurs during metastisis of cancer
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lymphadenitis
refer to secondary inflammation of lymph nodes
| occurs during metastisis of cancer
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lymphedema
accumulation of interstitial fluid
lymph not drained from an area of body
if lymph nodes removed
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additional functions of lymphatic system
absorption and transport of dietary fat through lacteals which receive chyle from intestine and convey it through thoracic duct to venous system
formation of defense mechanism for the body
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lacteals
specialized lymphatic capillaries that receive absorbed fat
