Issues And Debates

Question 1

gender bias

What is the definition of gender

Answer 1

The differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes

Question 2

gender bias

What is the definition of alpha bias

Answer 2

When the differences between men and women are exaggerated to boost or put down the value of women

Question 3

gender bias

How did Freud show alpha bias

Answer 3

Concluded that women had weaker superegos that men because they had less reason to identify with mother as there was no fear of castration

Freud said: ‘femininity is an expression of failed masculinity’

Question 4

gender bias

What is beta bias

Answer 4

When differences between the two sexes are ignored or minimalised. This is often seen when female participants are not involved as part of a research process and it is then assumed the findings apply equally to both sexes.

Question 5

gender bias

What is the definition of androcentrism

Answer 5

Male cantered- when behaviour is judged according to the male standard, usually making women appear abnormal. This is caused through both alpha and beta bias and is caused by psychology being a male-dominated field

Question 6

gender bias

How does the research into fight or flight show beta bias

Answer 6

All research into fight or flight was based off a study on men. It was then assumed women had the same fights or flight response as men. Whereas reality showed women’s fight or flight is inhibited as they care for offspring or form defensive networks

Question 7

gender bias

How does Milgrams research show beta bias

Answer 7

Said 65% of people went up to 400v (only studied men)

Sheridan and king found 100% of women went up to 400v

Question 8

gender bias

How is PMS an example of androcentrism

Answer 8

If a man is angry it is believed to be a rational response to a stimulus

If a woman is angry it is said to be her hormones

Question 9

gender bias

What are the limitations of gender bias

Answer 9

Sexism in research- women still under represented when data is collected- leads to beta bias and can be harmful for stereotypes.

Gender bias not taken seriously- formanowicz analysed over 1000 articles on bender bias over 8 years and found that research on gender bias is often funded less and published in less prestigious journals

Contradictory evidence- Joel found that when he scanned the brains of men and women he found that there were no differences in structure or processing between the two genders. Disproving the theory that there is neural differences between men and women (Maccoby and Jacklin)

Question 10

culture bias

What is the definition of culture bias

Answer 10

A tendency to interpret behaviour and attitudes through the ‘lens’ of one’s own cultures ignoring the effects that cultural differences may have

Question 11

culture bias

What did Henrichs find about culture bias in psychology

Answer 11

68% of research participants are from the USA

96% are from industrialised nations

Question 12

culture bias

What name did Henrich give to people who usually participate in psychological studies

Answer 12

WEIRD

White

Educated people

From industrialised

Rich

Democracies

Question 13

culture bias

How does the US diagnosis of mental health problems show culture bias

Answer 13

Because it is diagnosed using the DSM and is likely to be administered by a white doctor

Question 14

culture bias

How many times more likely is a black West Indian to be admitted to a mental hospital than a white person in London

Answer 14

2

Question 15

culture bias

What is the definition of ethnocentrism

Answer 15

The belief in the superiority of one’s own cultural group. This means other cultures are judged by the standard of one’s own culture, leading to prejudice and discrimination

Question 16

culture bias

What is an example of ethnocentrism in research

Answer 16

Ainsworth’s strange situation

USA norm for attachment was ‘secure’

German and Japanese babies said to have insecure attachment for being more independent or clingy, when in reality this was ‘secure’ for their cultures

Question 17

culture bias

What is an example of ethnocentrism in real world

Answer 17

Intelligence tests in USA to join the army

Question 18

culture bias

How did Adrian dove prove USA intelligence tests to be culturally bias

Answer 18

Made the chitling test

Question 19

culture bias

What is an etic approach to research

Answer 19

Research conducted in one country is applied to others

For example Starbucks and strange situation

Question 20

culture bias

What is an emic approach to research

Answer 20

Research conducted within one small specific culture/area and only used to describe behaviour in that culture

For example McDonald’s

Question 21

culture bias

What is cultural relativism

Answer 21

When psychologists understand that the ‘things’ they discover can only be meaningful and understood within the specific culture they were discovered.

Question 22

culture bias

How did Birslin show intelligence testing showed ethnocentrism and an etic approach

Answer 22

The Baganda people of Uganda characterise intelligence as slow careful and deliberate thought which would not suit a western IQ test which is timed. This could lead to discrimination and prejudice

Question 23

culture bias

What are limitations of culture bias

Answer 23

Much research is culturally bias- Asch only studied white middle-class Americans. When this was replicated in collectivist cultures conformity was much higher. This can lead to harmful prejudice and stereotypes

Harmful effects- Gould showed how conscription tests for WW1 were ethnocentric and made for white people. This made minorities appear less intelligent and ‘mentally unfit’

Question 24

culture bias

What are the strengths of culture bias

Answer 24

Psychology has changed- Takano and Osaka found that in 14/15 studies comparing the USA to Japan there was no evidence of ‘individualism’ or ‘collectivism’- saying this conclusion is ‘lazy’ and simplistic. Shows culture bias is less of a problem now

Advanced psychology- cultural psychology is now a field that was established due to cultural bias. This incorporates sociology, political science and anthropology and takes an emic approach to tackle cultural bias.

Question 25

# free will vs determinism What is the definition of free will

Answer 25

The bottom that humans can make choices and that their behaviours and thoughts are not determined by biological or environmental factors

Question 26

# free will vs determinism What is the definition of determinism

Answer 26

The view that an individuals behaviour is shaped by biological or environmental factors

Question 27

# free will vs determinism What are the two types of determinism

Answer 27

Hard determinism- ‘fatalism’ Soft determinism- put forward by James (1990)

Question 28

# free will vs determinism What are the three main types of determinism

Answer 28

Biological- hormones, genes, neural structure etc Environmental- decisions combination of all reinforcement received Psychic- sexual desires and instincts- problems in psychosexual stages etc

Question 29

# free will vs determinism What are the arguments for determinism (AO3)

Answer 29

Supporting evidence- Libel put participants in MRI scanners and asked them to flick their roar at any time. He found that before they made the conscious decision to do so there was unconscious brain activity.

Question 30

# free will vs determinism What are the arguments for free will (AO3)

Answer 30

Better for mental health- Roberts (2000) forms in a study that teens who believed in fatalism were more likely to have depression Better for legal system- of determinism is believed would be very hard to sentence criminals

Question 31

# nature-nurture debate What are the 5 parts of the nature nurture debate

Answer 31

Nature Interactionist approach Nurture Epigenetics Diathesis stress model

Question 32

# nature-nurture debate Define the nature side of nature nurture debate

Answer 32

Biological factors are the cause of behaviour Heritability coefficient used from 0-1 IQ is 0.5 Height is 0.9 Depression is 0.4

Question 33

# nature-nurture debate Explain the nurture side of the nature nurture debate

Answer 33

Non genetic factors explain behaviour Lerner suggested there are two different levels of environment. Pre natal and post natal Links to behaviour approach with the belief in a tabula rasa

Question 34

# nature-nurture debate Explain the interaction it’s approach

Answer 34

View that nature and nurture work simultaneously One example of this is PKU This is as a result of two recessive genes and can cause mental retardation. However if diagnosed early and child is placed on a low protein diet this can lead to PKU not being expressed

Question 35

# nature-nurture debate Explain epigenetics

Answer 35

Refers to a change in genetic activity without actually changing our genes This is when our everyday life leaves a ‘mark’ on our DNA for example smoking and diet These marks tell our bodies which genes to ignore and which to activate, meaning habits can be passed down to offspring Dias and Ressler proved this by making rats smell perfume before being shocked. The offspring of these rats were then scared of the smell having never smelled it.

Question 36

# nature-nurture debate Explain the diathesis-stress model

Answer 36

Suggests that mental illness is a result of biological factors that are triggered by a traumatic event. Tienari found that in Finnish adoptees who were vulnerable to schizophrenia as their mothers had it. Only those who were bought up in ‘disturbed’ or ‘dysfunctional’ households developed schizophrenia.

Question 37

# nature-nurture debate What are the strengths of the nature nurture debate

Answer 37

Twin studies are helpful- clearly shows how nature and nurture have separately effected a child. For example Rhee and wardman found through twin studies that 41% of the variance in aggression can be accounted for by genetic influences Supporting evidence- Susser and Lin found that Dutch woman who were pregnant during starvation in 1940 had children who were twice as likely to develop schizophrenia. Real world application- Nesdatdt said that OCD was 0.76 heritable. This can help with ‘genetic counselling’ where advice is given to people who are likely to have a child with a disorder which can improve a child’s quality of life.

Question 38

# nature-nurture debate What are the weaknesses of the nature nurture debate

Answer 38

Impossible to decipher between the two- Plomin said that you can’t decipher between the two because as a child will naturally place themselves in an environment that fits their nature. This is known as ‘niche-picking’ and ‘niche-building’ Harmful consequences- if someone believes very strongly in the nature side this can lead to prejudice. This has previously lead to ethnic cleansing and eugenic policies. If someone believes strongly in the nurture side then this may leave to behavioural shaping such as in North Korea which is also unethical

Question 39

# holism and reductionism What is the theory of holism

Answer 39

The parts of any whole cannot be understood except in their relation to the whole. You cannot break something down too it’s parts and expect to understand the whole

Question 40

# holism and reductionism What is the theory of reductionism

Answer 40

All complex systems can be completely understood in terms of its components. You can break something down into smaller parts in order to study the thing as a whole.

Question 41

# holism and reductionism I what is biological reductionism

Answer 41

The idea that all human behaviour can be broken down into a single, physical, neurochemical and genetic unit

Question 42

# holism and reductionism What is environmental reductionism

Answer 42

Behaviourist approach built off this as behaviourists break down all human behaviour into stimulus-response links that can be measured in a lab

Question 43

# holism and reductionism What are the strengths of the holistic approach

Answer 43

Explains social behaviour- for example it can be used to study conformity, ISI and NSI. This is because there is no use focusing on the individual as the collective is what is being observed.

Question 44

# holism and reductionism What is a limitation of holism

Answer 44

Lacks practical value- humanistic approach shows the many layers to human behaviour, showing something like depression can have many causing factors. This then makes it hard to administer therapy as these different layers are ignored

Question 45

# holism and reductionism What is a strengths of reductionism

Answer 45

Very scientific- approaches such as the behaviourist and biological study behaviour through operationalising variables and doing highly scientific lab research. For example biological approach uses MRI and PET scans and twin studies. This gives reductionism higher credibility

Question 46

# holism and reductionism What is a limitation of reductionism

Answer 46

Over-simplified- criticised for ignoring ‘bigger picture.’ For example limiting OCD to a single gene. Can explain why someone has a disorder such as schizophrenia but cannot say how it effects life and feels. Shows a lack of validity as a full explanation cannot be given

Question 47

# idiographic and nomothetic approaches What is the idiographic approach

Answer 47

Focuses on individual cases Attempts to gain a detailed insight of specific and unique behaviour Does not aim to formulate general laws of behaviour

Question 48

# idiographic and nomothetic approaches What is the nomothetic approach

Answer 48

Attempts to study human behaviour to make general principles and universal laws Studies a large number of people

Question 49

# idiographic and nomothetic approaches What methods are used in the idiographic approach

Answer 49

Qualitative methods used to get now depth Unstructured interviews, observations and case studies used

Question 50

# idiographic and nomothetic approaches What methods are used in the nomothetic approach

Answer 50

Quantitative methods used Mean, median, mode, dispersion graphs and statistical analysis used

Question 51

# idiographic and nomothetic approaches What are examples in psychology of the idiographic approach

Answer 51

Humanistic approach Phineas Gage HM Little Hans

Question 52

# idiographic and nomothetic approaches What are examples of the nomothetic approach in psychology

Answer 52

Behaviourist approach Biological approach Strange situation Oedipus and Electra complex

Question 53

# idiographic and nomothetic approaches What are the main assumptions of the idiographic approach

Answer 53

People are unique entities People have their own subjective experiences and motivations You cannot compare unique individuals to larger groups

Question 54

# idiographic and nomothetic approaches What are the main assumptions of the nomothetic approach

Answer 54

Psychologists should produce general laws about human behaviour This provides a ‘benchmark’ to compare people against Large numbers of people should be researched

Question 55

# idiographic and nomothetic approaches What is a strength of the idiographic approach

Answer 55

Uses in depth qualitative methods that are very detailed Case studies can lead to nomothetic research (for example HM)

Question 56

# idiographic and nomothetic approaches What is a limitation of the idiographic approach

Answer 56

Time consuming Less scientific Researcher bias can be a factor

Question 57

# idiographic and nomothetic approaches What is a strength of the nomothetic approach

Answer 57

Very scientific Uses standardised procedure and statistical analysis Greater scientific credibility

Question 58

# idiographic and nomothetic approaches What is a limitation of the nomothetic approach

Answer 58

Ignores the ‘whole person’ as it shows why people have OCD not what it’s like to live with it. This leads to a lack of external validity

Question 59

# ethical implications of studies and theory What is socially sensitive research

Answer 59

Areas of research that are likely to be seen as controversial This is often research about race, IQ, criminality, sexuality etc

Question 60

# ethical implications of studies and theory What did Aronson say about socially sensitive research

Answer 60

‘Just because socially sensitive research attracts attention from the media and public does not mean we should shy away from it. In fact, this research is very important and therefore psychologists have a social responsibility to carry it out’

Question 61

# ethical implications of studies and theory What did Sieber and Stanley identify as the main problems in socially sensitive research

Answer 61

The research question- consider how to word question so it appears less harmful Dealing with participants- consent, confidentiality and psychological harm must be taken seriously as more serious topics can mean more serious consequences for individuals The way findings are used

Question 62

# ethical implications of studies and theory What are the strengths of socially sensitive

Answer 62

Study or 5000 gay people in 1948 got being gay removed from DSM as personality disorder in 1973 ‘Office of national statistics’ - government uses research to to implement laws such as those helping with childcare and mental health provision

Question 63

# ethical implications of studies and theory What are the limitations of socially sensitive research

Answer 63

Criminal gene Burts reasearxh lead to introduction of 11+ but it was all fake