Issues and debates

Question 1

Gender bias

Answer 1

The tendency to treat one gender in a different way to the other

Question 2

Kohlberg’s moral development and gender (evaluation)

Answer 2

Weakness
When women did the test they came out as less morally developed. Gilligan (1982) found women favoured care rather than justice so were not less morally developed.

Question 3

Use of standardised procedures in research studies (evaluation)

Answer 3

Strength
Women and men might respond differently to research or may be treated differently, which could create artificial differences or mask real ones. Standardisation avoids this.

Question 4

Avoiding alpha bias

Answer 4

Some psychologists argue that we should develop theories which show differences between men and women, but emphasise the value of women.

Question 5

Cornwell et al (2013) (gender bias)

Answer 5

Girls outperform boys on reading tests, while boys score at least as well on maths + science tests as girls

Question 6

Hare-Mustin and Marecek (1988) (gender bias)

Answer 6

While equal treatment under the law has allowed greater access for women to education etc, this draws attention away from the special needs of women and differences between men and women.

Question 7

Judith Worell

Answer 7

• Women should be studied in real life contexts.
• Women should genuinely participate in research rather than being the object of study.
• Diversity within groups of women should be examined, rather than making comparisons between women and men.
• Qualitative methods should be used rather than just quantitative.

Question 8

Culture bias

Answer 8

The tendency to judge people in terms of one’s own cultural assumptions

Question 9

Cultural relativism

Answer 9

The view that behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it is viewed in the context of the culture in which it originates

Question 10

Imposed etic

Answer 10

When a theory or technique developed in one culture is used to study the behaviour of people in another culture

Question 11

Takano and Osaka (evaluation)

Answer 11

Strength of culture bias
Takano and Osaka (1999) - 14/15 studies compared US and Tokyo and fund no evidence of the traditional distinction between individualism and collectivism

Question 12

Ekman (1989) (evaluation)

Answer 12

Strength of culture bias
Suggests that basic facial expressions for emotions are universal.
Some features of human attachment are universal.
Suggests an emic approach is not needed.

Question 13

Challenges implicit assumptions (evaluation)

Answer 13

Strength of culture bias
Cross-cultural research challenges racist/inappropriate assumptions by studying other cultures, whereas culture bias enforces them

Question 14

Scientific determinism

Answer 14

Scientific research is based on the belief that all events have a cause. Causes can be explained using general laws.

Question 15

Environmental determinism

Answer 15

Some approaches see the source of determinism as being outside the individual

Question 16

Behaviour and determinism (evaluation)

Answer 16

Strength

Behaviour appears to be determined where mental illness is concerned

Question 17

Science and determinism (evaluation)

Answer 17

Weakness

Unfalsifiable

Question 18

Nature

Answer 18

Behaviour is caused by innate biological/psychological characteristics and is therefore determined by biology.

Question 19

Hereditability coefficient

Answer 19

A tool used to test heredity
Classifies the extent to which a behaviour is caused by genetics. The hereditability coefficient for IQ is around 0.5, suggesting environment and genetics are important factors in intelligence.

Question 20

Nature affects nurture (evaluation)

Answer 20

Genetic environments

Rutter and Rutter - an aggressive child triggers aggressive responses from others, making them more aggressive

Question 21

Nurture affects nature (evaluation)

Answer 21

Maguire taxi study shows brain changes as a result of the environment

Question 22

Epigenetics (evaluation)

Answer 22

Changing the genetic expression without changing genetic code of an organism which alters inherited behaviours in children (an interactionist approach in which nurture affects nature because the environment influences gene expression)

Question 23

Reductionism

Answer 23

The theory that all complex systems can be understood in terms of their components.

Question 24

Types of reductionism

Answer 24

Biological
Environmental
Experimental

Question 25

Environmental reductionism

Answer 25

Human behaviour explained in terms of stimulus-response link

Question 26

Experimental reductionism

Answer 26

Reducing complex behaviours to isolated variables

Question 27

Gestalt psychology

Answer 27

A psychological approach that emphasises that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

Question 28

Levels of explanation

Answer 28

The idea that there are different ways of viewing the same phenomena in varying levels of simplicity. Explanations vary from those at fundamental level to more complex

Question 29

Beliefs of idiographic approach

Answer 29

Behaviour understood subjectively - what it means to the individual (phenomenology) Only the individual can explain what a behaviour means Qualitative

Question 30

Nomothetic

Answer 30

Understanding behaviour through developing general laws that apply to all people

Question 31

Beliefs of nomothetic approach

Answer 31

People are the same | Quantitative - group averages are statistically analysed and predictions are made

Question 32

Types of general law

Answer 32

Classification Establishing principles Establishing dimensions

Question 33

Example of combination of nomothetic and idiographic approaches

Answer 33

Bowlby's 44 thieves | - Started as case studies of individual criminals

Question 34

Individual differences (nomothetic vs idiographic) (evaluation)

Answer 34

Weakness of nomothetic approach | Generalised laws may not apply to an individual

Question 35

What do ethical implications concern?

Answer 35

The way the research impacts those who take part in the research and also the way the findings are communicated to the public and how the findings are used

Question 36

Issues of ethics in research (10)

Answer 36

``` Privacy Confidentiality Valid methodology Deception Informed consent Equitable treatment Scientific freedom Ownership of data Values Risk/benefit ratio ```

Question 37

Valid methodology (ethics in research)

Answer 37

In cases of poor methodology, the media and public would be unaware of invalid findings, thus poor studies may shape important social policy to the detriment of groups represented

Question 38

Scientific freedom (ethics in research)

Answer 38

The scientist has a duty to engage in research but has an obligation not to harm participants.

Question 39

Ownership of data (ethics in research)

Answer 39

Involves sponsorship of research and the public accessibility of the data

Question 40

Values (ethics in research)

Answer 40

Differ between idiographic and nomothetic approaches - issues arise when there is a clash in these values

Question 41

Benefits of socially sensitive research (evaluation)

Answer 41

Scarr (1988) argues that studies of under-represented groups and issues may promote greater sensitivity and understanding, which may reduce prejudice

Question 42

Framing of the research question (evaluation)

Answer 42

Kitzinger and Coyle (1995) note how homosexual relationships are compared and judged against heterosexual norms. Investigators must approach research with an 'open mind'