Key Terms: What's What Flashcards
(209 cards)
1
Q
Ancien Regime
A
Refers to the political and social system of France before the French Revolution of 1789. People were members of an Estate and subjects of the King.
2
Q
First Estate
A
- Clergy of the Roman Catholic Church
- Around 125,000 people (less than 0.5% of the population)
- Owned one-tenth of French land
- Held significant political power and controlled key institutions
- Exempt from taxes but paid a voluntary don gratuit
3
Q
Second Estate
A
- Nobility
- Less than 3% of population
- Owned 1/4-1/3 of French land
- Exempt from the Taille
4
Q
Third Estate
A
97% of the population. They consisted of the bourgeoisie, the san-culottes and the peasants.
5
Q
Absolute Monarchy
A
A system where the monarch has complete authority over the lives of his people
6
Q
Bourgeoisie
A
Middle-class urban dwellers who made a living through their intellectual skills or business practices.
7
Q
Sans-Culottes
A
In 1792, the Parisian working class became known as the sans culottes. They were known for their revolutionary views.
8
Q
‘King in Council’
A
Where new laws were made
9
Q
Pays d’états
A
Regions where representative assemblies had retained the right to negotiate on the raising of taxes with the royal intendants. The Assembly kept part of the taxes raised to fund public spending in the region.
10
Q
Généralités
A
The 34 areas into which France was divided for the purpose of collecting taxes and other administrative functions: each area was under the control of an intendant
11
Q
Intendants
A
Officials directly appointed by and answerable to the Crown. They helped LXVI maintain his rule in the provinces and fed back information. They were responsible for finance, policing and justice.
12
Q
Livres
A
The French unit of currency at the beginning of the eighteenth century.
13
Q
Tax farming
A
A system where the government agrees a tax assessment figure for an area which is then collected by a company that bids for the right to collect it.
14
Q
Venality
A
- The custom of selling administrative offices which could be inherited by descendants.
- It was commonly practised as a way of augmenting royal income
15
Q
Philosophes
A
Enlightenment thinkers. They were primarily interested in political institutions and the state of society. They sought out how to establish the basic priniples by which a state should be governed, the distributions of wealth and how individuals should live.
16
Q
Guild
A
An organisation that tightly controls entry into a trade
17
Q
Corvée (royale)
A
The obligation for every male to do unpaid labour service to maintain the King’s roads.
18
Q
Gabelle
A
- Indirect tax on salt and was collected by the ferme générale
- Abolished March 1790
19
Q
Taille
A
A tax on property and income of the Third Estate. It was divided into
- Taille personnelle: Property,revenue, personal tax
- Tailee réelle: land and house property or household
20
Q
Capitation
A
A poll tax
- The clergy paid Don Gratuit instead
- The Second estate payments varied depending on rank, status, occupation and property.
-There were 22 different tax classes
21
Q
Vingtième
A
A direct tax of 5% of earnings from land, property, commerce, industry and official offices.
- Intended to be levied on all but the clergy won exemption and pays d’états won reduced rates
22
Q
Parlements
A
The 13 ‘sovereign’ courts. They…
- Registered the King’s edicts
- Heard civil and criminal cases
- Controlled guilds, corporations & markets
- Controlled local government finances and law and order
23
Q
Lit de justice
A
A royal session of the Paris Parlement for the compulsory registration of royal edicts
24
Q
Edict
A
An official order or proclamation used by the king to enforce laws without needing approval from the Estates-General or other bodies.
25
Remonstrance
A document sent by a parlement to the monarch protesting against a royal decree or details of that decree
26
Diocese
An area served by a bishop. it is made up of a large number of parishes.
27
Plurality
The holding of more than one bishopric or parish by an individual.
28
Absenteeism
When bishops never visited their diocese mainly due to plurality.
29
Tithe
- A payment to the Church amounting to a tenth of income
- Abolished in August 1789
30
Don Gratuit
- A 'voluntary gift' paid by the Church every 5 years
- Approximately 2% of the Church's total revenue.
- This was offered in lieu of direct tax
31
Noblesse d'épée
"Nobles of the Sword" were hereditary nobility.
32
Noblesse de robe
- Acquired noble status usually because of the venal jobs they did.
- Over 70,000 of them by 1789
33
Cahiers de doléances
- Each estate was invited in early 1789 to draw up a list of grievances for discussion at the Estates general
- 40,000 were produced.
- Society of 30 helped draw up 'model cahiers' for some of the illiterate 3rd Estate
34
Palace of Versailles
The royal palace of the Bourbons and the seat of royal government built outside of Paris by Louis XIV.
35
Feudal dues
Financial or work obligations imposed on the peasantry by landowners
36
Seigneur
- Land-owning nobles
- Had considerable influence & ran their own courts
- Regarded themselves superior to intendants
37
Royal Domain
- Taxes on Crown lands
- Collected by régie générale
38
The Enlightenment
An intellectual and cultural movement that spread across Europe during the eighteenth century.
39
Seven Years' War
1756-1763
- Britain and France
- Costed 1.3 billion livres
- Ended in the disastrous economic loss of all French colonial possessions in North America
40
American War of Independence
American Revolution 1775-1783
Conflict arose from tension over taxation between Britain and its 13 North American Colonies. America won their independence from Britain
41
Deficit
When expenditure is greater than income it results in a defecit.
42
Palais Royale
Duc d'Orléans home which became a centre for revolutionary speeches
43
Revolt of the Nobles
Series of uncoordinated and sporadic uprisings across France in the spring/ summer of 1788, often led by nobles
44
Day of Tiles
7 June 1788 a day of riots in Grenoble. The royal troops who attempted to restore order were pelted with stones and roof slates.
45
Eden Treaty
1786 Treaty which allowed the imports of British goods, including textiles, at a reduced rates of import duties.
46
Politicisation
A process in which people who were previously unconcerned with politics take an active interest in political issues which affect their daily lives.
47
Voting by order
Each estate votes separately on any issue. Any two states together would outvote the third.
48
Voting by head
Decisions taken by the Estates-General would be agreed by a simple vote with a majority sufficent to agree any policy. This favoured the Third Estate, which had the most deputies.
49
National Assembly
- Formed on the 10th June 1789
- 17th June 1789: Named the National Assembly (491/90 votes)
- 19th June 1789: Clergy joined
- Third Estate asserted its right to represent the nation & make decisions on the future of France
50
National Guard
1789-1790:
- The first National Guard was set up in Paris in 1789 from soldiers that had defected to the revolutionary cause. Voluntary militia groups were united under the command of Lafayette in 1790.
1792:
- A more radical revolutionary force that fought for the sans-culottes and enforced the wishes of the Assembly.
- It remained a powerful political influence until 1795
51
Tennis Court Oath
20th June 1789: National Assembly swore an oath not to disband until France had a constitution.
52
Sénace Royale
Session of the Estates-General in the presence of the monarch
53
Lettres de cachet
Sealed instructions from the Crown allowing detention without trial of a named individual
54
Bastille
- Parisian fortress-prison for political detainees
- Located in working-class Faubourg Saint-Antoine
- Seen as a symbol of repression, despotism, and lettres de cachet
- Stormed on 14 July 1789
55
Constituent Assembly
9 July 1789 - 30 September 1791.
9 July 1789: National Assembly took a resolution to call itself the 'Constituent Assembly" since its purpose was to draw up a constitution.
56
Paris Commune
- A Municipal council set up illegally in Paris in 1789.
- They became an elected body in 1790 with delegates from the 48 sections.
- Replaced in 1794
57
Counter-revolution
Groups and individuals hostile to the Revolution, who wished to reverse any changes it made at the earliest opportunity.
58
August Decrees
5-11 August 1789. The proposed changes were given in decrees and stated that "The National Assembly abolishes the feudal system entirely"
59
Declaration of the Rights of Man
Issued on the 26th August 1789, DOROMAC was the framework for the new constitution as it summarised the revolutionaries' ideals and was derived from Enlightenment principles.
60
Constitution
A written document detailing how a country is to be governed, laws made, powers apportioned and elections conducted.
61
Nationalisation of Church land
Church land was taken in to state control on 2 November 1789
62
Assignats
- Government bonds, issued to aid the purchase of Church land; used as paper money and accepted by domestic and international creditors.
- April 1790 the Assembly converted the bonds into paper money
- To pay for the war the government printed more and more assignats
- February 1793: Purchasing power fell by 50%
- 30 July 1795: Value of the assignat had fallen to 5% of its nominal value
63
Biens nationaux
- The nationalised property of the Church as ordered by the decree of 2 November 1789
- It was predominately bought by the Bourgeoisie
64
Suspensive veto
The right to delay a measure proposed by the Assembly
65
Tuileries Palace
- A former royal residence which had been abandoned 100 years previously and had since housed royal pensioners and members of royal staff.
- 10 August 1792: Marched on during a revolutionary journee by 2,000 federes, it was defended by 3,000 troops. 600 of the Swiss mercaneries were killed, 90 fédéres and 300 Parisians were injured or killed. This made it the bloodiest journee
- Where the armoire de fer were discovered
- 1800: Napoleon moved in
66
Constitutional Monarchy
Where the powers of the Crown are limited by a constitution.
67
Departements
On 26th February 1790, 83 new divisions for local administration in France were created to replace the old divisions of the Ancien Regime
68
Commune
The smallest administrative unit in France
69
Active citizens
Men over 25 who, depending on the amount of taxes paid, could vote and stand as deputies
70
Passive citizens
Approximately 2.7 million citizens who enjoyed the civil rights provided by the DOROMAC but paid insufficient taxes to qualify for a vote
71
Contribution foncière
A land tax from which there were no exemptions or special privileges
72
Contribution mobilière
A tax on movable goods such as grain, payable by active citizens
73
Patente
A limited tax on commercial profits
74
Le Chapelier Law
June 1791 law that forbade trade unions and employers' organisations. Collective bargaining, picketing and strikes were declared illegal.
75
Laissez-faire
A concept of limited government intervention so the economy is driven by fair competition and natural laws of supply and demand
76
Free trade
Trade without the imposition of taxes and duties on goods.
77
Penal code
- A list of laws of France and the punishments for breaking those laws.
- The March 1792 penal code was made more humane
- Guillotine was introduced and approved by the Legislative Assembly in March 1792.
78
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
- 12th July 1790: A decree making theChurch subservient to the state.
- December 1790: LXVI forced to accept
- The administrative structure was reorganised e.g bishoprics reduced from 135 to 83
- Clegymen became paid state officials
- Bishops & Priests were elected
79
Oath of Loyalty
27 November 1790: Assembly decreed that all the clergy "shall swear.. to be faithful... and maintain with all their power the constitution decreed by the National Assembly". If they didn't swear the oath, they were deprived of their offices and livings.
80
Non - juring / refractory priests
- The members of the clergy who refused to take the new oath of allegiance to the Civil Constitution
81
Jacobins
- Left-wing ideology rooted in Enlightenment thought and revolutionary practice
- Met daily; initially only Deputies, later expanded despite high fees
- July 1790: 1,200 members
- 1791: Became more radical, prompting moderates to form the Feuillants
- 1793: 2,000 clubs across France
- 12 November 1794: Shut down during Thermidorian reaction
82
Cordeliers
- April 1790: Founded and were more radical than Jacobins
- Opposed distinction between active and passive citizens
- Supported sans-culottes, direct democracy, and right to insurrection
- Left-wing; aimed to protect citizens' rights and monitor the Assembly
- Open to all, including women and passive citizens; minimal membership fee
- Founded by Danton and Desmoulins; Marat was a member
- Highly influential in Paris; base for ultra-revolutionaries like the Hébertists
- Their petition calling for the King's dismissal on 24 June 1791 led to 30,000 people marching in support to the National Assembly
83
Société de 89
- Founded by Sieyès
- Meeting place of supporters of the constitutional monarchy
- Met at the Palais-Royal and charged a high membership fee
- Members included Lafayette, Bailly, Mirabeau and Condorcet.
84
Insurrection
An uprising of ordinary people, predominantly the sans-culottes
85
Flight to Varennes
- Failed attempted escape of Louis XVI and the royal family.
- Took place on the 20-21 June 1791
- The National Assembly escorted the royal family back to Paris.
86
Feuillants
- More moderate
- Constitutional monarchists
- Broke away from the Jacobin Club after it became too radical and following the flight to Varennes
- Produced La Gazette but was dissolved in November 1793
- Lafayette was a member
- Dominant group and controlled the National Assembly
87
Champ de Mars massacre
- The meeting was organised by the Cordeliers Club on the 17th July to sign a petition for the establishment of a republic
- 6,000 people attended but the Assembly & Paris Commune sent Lafayette and the National Guards to ensure order but this led to violence and roughly 50 were killed.
- The radicals felt this was a betrayal of the 'people' by the moderates, a 'massacre'.
88
Martial law
- The suspension of civil liberties by the State in an attempt to restore public order when there is severe rioting and mass disobedience.
- Often through ruling through the army and using military measures.
89
Self-denying Ordinance
Members of the National Assembly were not permitted to stand for election of the new Legislative Assembly. This was a proposal made by Robespierre
90
Legislative Assembly
- Came into existence in October 1791 and was the second elected Assembly to rule during the Revolution.
- It differed from the National/Constituent Assembly in that all 745 members were directly elected.
91
Girondins
- A small group of deputies from the Gironde and their associates, notably Brissot.
- Expelled ()
- 24 October 1793: Trial of the 21 expelled Girondin's began and all were condemned to death
- 31 October 1793: The 21 Girondins guillotined within 36 minutes
92
Émigrés
People mainly aristocrats who fled France during the Revolution. Many joined foreign opponents of the revolution.
93
Great Powers
Countries that were more powerful than others on the basis of their military, economic and territorial strength. The major ones were Austria, France, Prussia, Russia and Britain.
94
Declaration on Pillnitz
- Issued by Leopold II and Frederick William III of Prussia on the 27th August 1791
- Stated that the situation of the French King was of ‘common interest’ to all nations
- Stated that the powers of the French Crown should be restored
- They we’re ready to use force to bring about the restoration of royal power
95
Austrian Committee
- Influential politicians and close confidants of Marie Antoinette who kept in close secret contact with Vienna, capital of the Habsburg Empire.
- MArch 1792: The Girondin attacks on the Austrian committee at Court forced LXVI to dismiss his Feuillant Ministers and appoint a more radical government
96
Brissotins/Girondins
- Brissot headed a group of 12 deputies from the departement Gironde
- Held strong views by favouring war and were against the extension of political rights to militant mobs
- Met in Madame Roland's salon
97
Revolutionary War
- Fought by France against other European powers between 1792 and 1802 after the Treaty of Amiens
- Resulted in the loss of 1.4 million French people
- Dramatically altered the whole direction of the revolution
98
Fédéres
- Refers to the volunteer troops on 1792
- The Brissotin Minister of War, Joseph Servan proposed that armed volunteers from the provinces should be brought to Paris to receive military training and supplement the army.
- July 1792: Only had 5,000 people in Paris but made a powerful pressure group in Paris sections and called for the removal of LXVI
99
Paris Sections
- A basic unit of municipal government in France.
- The 48 sections of Paris were known as Communes for their militancy.
- The general assemblies of the sections were strongholds for the sans culottes
- They went into permanent session in 1792 because of the war crisis and met continuously until September 1793.
- Most of the journées were organised through the sections
100
Bonnet rouge
The red cap popularly known as the cap of liberty which became an important symbol of the Revolution.
101
La Marseillaise
A patriotic song made by the composed by Rouget de l'Isle in 1792 and adopted the anthem of the Republic on 14th July 1795.
102
Universal Male Suffrage
The right to vote for every man over 21
103
La Partie en Danger
'The fatherland is in danger'
- 11 July 1792 the Assembly declared a state of emergency by issuing this decree which called for every Frenchman to fight
104
Brunswick Manifesto
- Issued by the commander-in-chief of the Austro-Prussian armies
- Arrived in Paris on the 1st August 1792
- Stated that if LXVI was harmed they would inflict 'exemplary vengeance' on the city.
- Called for the restoration of the liberty of LXVI and his family
- Stated that any National Guardsmen captured by the Austrians would be put to death
105
Revolutionary Journée
A day of popular action and disturbance linked to great political change.
106
Republic
- A political system which does not have a hereditary head of state and where supremacy of the people is recognised through mass democracy
- The First Republic September 1792 - 1804
107
The Plain
250 deputies (the majority) in the National Convention who were not committed to extreme radicalism, nor excessive moderation.
108
Montagnards
The name given to Jacobin deputies who occupied the upper seats to the left of the speaker in the tiered chamber of the National Assembly.
109
Armoire de fer
- An iron wall safe in the Tuileries which contained correspondence between LXVI and the Austrians.
- 20 November 1792: Roland announced its discovery to the National Convention which proved the King's counter-revolutionary activities and sealed his fate
110
Appel nominal
- Each deputy was required to declare publicly his decision on the guilt or innocence of LXVI
- Proposed by Marat
- 693/749 Deputies voted LXVI was guilty
- No one voted LXVI was innocent
111
National Convention
Assembly which governed France from the 20th September 1792 - 26th October 1795
112
September Massacres
- Started after the fortress of Vendrun fell so Paris was unprotected from the Prussian army
- 1100-1300/2600 Parisian prisoners were murdered
- Paris Commune or Danton did nothing to stop them
113
L'Ami du Peuple
- Marat's popular and influential paper among the working people of Paris which criticised moderate revolutionary leaders.
- Marat penned articles blaming the Girondins for France's problems which led to a series of attacks on Girondin printing presses on 9-10 March and his arrest on the 12th April 1793
114
Decree of Fraternity
19 November 1792: The Convention offered support to those in any state wishing to overthrow their rulers and establish democratic political systems.
115
The First Coalition
- 1792-1797
- 1 February 1793: The Convention unamiously declared war on Britain and the Netherlands
- Emerged slowly between March & September 1793
- A loose anti-French alliance created by Britain and consisting of the Netherlands, Spain, Piedmont, Naples, Prussia, Russia, Austria and Portugal.
- Russia refused to commit soldiers to the coalition when Britain did not send money to support Russia's armies
116
Committee of General Security
- Vital part of the machinery of the Terror
- Established October 1792
- Domestic surveillance and persectuion of foreign agents
- Had 13 Deputies and reported to the National Convention
117
Committee of Public Safety
- Established 6 April 1793, 2 days after Dumouriez's treason
- 9 members elected monthly by the National Convention
- Issued decrees on matters of general safety
- Met in secret; functioned as a war cabinet
- Supervised ministers and government agents
- Held authority over the CGS
- Initially dominated by Danton
- Reported weekly to the National Convention
- De facto government of France (1793–1794)
- One of the twin pillars of the Terror alongside the CGS
118
The Terror
- 5 September 1793 - 27 July 1794
- Extreme policies were used by the Jacobin government to ensure the survival of the Republic and destory anything suspected of being counter-revolutionary
- Between 1792 and 1794, there were 40,000 victims of the Terror with 17,000 of them being guillotined
119
Republican Calender
- Adopted in 1793 and used until 1805
- Time began when the old monarchy neded on 22 September 1792 which became 1 Vendémaire, Year I
- The months were renamed to match the seasons
- 12 months, but 10 days a week and three weeks in a month
- The remaining 5 days were patriotic holidays
120
Revolutionary Tribunal
- Set up 10th March 1793 as a court specialising in trying those accused of counter - revolutionary activities
- 5 judges and 3 were needed to sentence
- A prosecuter with 2 assistants and a number of jurymen from Paris and surrounding areas
- Continued until the end of May 1795 to largely permit legal action against Jacobins
121
Representatives on mission
- 9 March 1793: 82 deputies sent to 41 départements to address counter-revolutionary unrest
- Held local authorities accountable
- Tasked with restoring order and arresting suspects
- Monitored grain trade and levy of 300,000 men
- 9 April 1793: Also sent to armies to replace commanders, oversee supplies/recruitment, arrest and try suspects
- Acted as propaganda agents; reported daily to CPS and weekly to National Convention
- April 1795: Abolished during the Thermidorian reaction
122
Watch committees
Officially created by a decree of 21 March 1793 and were entrusted with carrying out revolutionary legislation during the Terror
123
Summary execution decree
From 19 March 1793 any rebels captured with arms were to be executed immediately
124
Federalism
A rejection of the central authority of the State in favour of regional authority
125
Federalist Revolt
- The expulsion of Girondins led to a revolt
- 29 May: Leaders in Lyons (2nd biggest city) were forced out of office which was followed by similar expulsions of Jacobins in other big cities
- 60/83 departements protested the against the expulsion of girondins with serious conflict in 8
- Challenged the Jacobins’ centralised revolution.
126
Egalitarianism
- Derived from 'equality'
- The aim to have all citizens equal with no disparities in wealth, status or opportunity
127
Levée en masse
- All the resources of the State put at its disposal for military use.
- People, buildings and resources.
- Proposed by Bertrand Barère 23 August 1793 in the name of the CPS
128
Total war
- All aspects of the state were used by the government to try and ensure victory
- Population, economy and buildings
129
Enrangés
- An extreme revolutionary group led by Jacques Roux which had considerable influence on the Parisian sans-culottes.
- They campaigned against anyone profiting from the high food prices
130
Armée Revolutionare
Sans-culottes sent to the provinces to confront counter-revolutionary forces and ensure the movement of food supplies
131
Dechristianisation
- Ruthless anti-religious policies conducted by some Jacobin supporters against the Chruch aimed at destroying influence
- October 1793: Paris Commune made it an official policy e.g all the figures on the west front of Notre Dame were beheaded
132
General Maximum
- Tables that fix the prices of a wide range of foods and commodities
- Law of General Maximum was passed on 29 September 1793 which fixed the prices of bread and essentials at one third above the prices of June 1790
- Wages were also fixed at 50% above the level of 1790
133
Law of Suspects
- Passed on 17th September 1793
- Anyone suspected of counter-revolutionary activity and undermining the Republic could be arrested and held without trial indefinitely
- October 1795: Officially repealed
134
Agents Nationaux
- National agents apointed by and responsible to the central government.
- Role was to monitor the enforcement of all revolutionary laws
135
Indulgents
- Supporters of Danton and Desmoulins who wished to see a relaxation of the Terror
- 30 March 1794: Arrested
- 5 April 1794: Danton, Desmoulins & 13 others guillotined
136
The Great Terror
137
Law of 14 Frimaire
- 4 December 1793
- Led to a highly centralised structure and chain of authority
- Gave CPS direct power over ministers, generals, the r.e.mission & local government
- Départements reduced to tax and public works roles.
- Armées Révolutionnaires disbanded from March 1794 (except Paris until Sept).
- Patriotic societies and committees were shut down.
138
Law of 22 Prairial
- Passed on 10 June 1794, targeting enemies of the people
- No witnesses, judgments based on jurors' conscience, no defense allowed
- Only verdicts: death or acquittal
- Most severe revolutionary law, aimed to increase convictions
- Led to the Great Terror
- 1 August 1795: Repealed
139
Cult of the Supreme Being
- Robespierre's alternative civic religion to the Catholic faith
- Convention accepted it in a decree of 7 May 1794
140
Festival of Reason
- November 1793
- Organised by the Paris Commune and Hébert
- Not authorised by the Convention
- Held in the 'Temple of Reason', formally Notre Dame Cathedral
- A papier-mâché mountain with a Temple of Philosophy was built.
- 'Liberty' a lightly dressed opera singer emerged, bowed to the flame of reason, and sat on a throne, surrounded by bonnet rouge–wearing maidens, and Republican hymns.
141
Laws of Ventose
- Passed in Jaunary and March 1794
- Property of those recognised as enemies of the Revolution could be seized and distributed among the poor
142
Coup of Thermidor
- The overthrow of Robespierre and his closest supporters which marked the end of the Terror.
- In total 87/95 Commune members lost their lives
143
Thermidorian Reaction
- Describes the 15 month period between the fall of Robespierre and the setting up of the Directory in November 1795
- During this period the Terror was dismantled and revenge was taken on those associated with it
- Thermidorians shared a desire to restore stability without restoring extreme Jacobinism or monarchy
144
White Terror
- Name given to the series of purges and campaigns by which the Thermidorians took action against the former proponents of the Terror
- Aimed to de-martyise Marat
- The victims of the Terror aimed to drive out or sometimes murdered Jacobins from towns or cities.
145
Muscadins/Jeunesse dorée
- 'Guilded youth'
- Swaggered around towns and cities in fashionable clothes who were armed with canes and wooden clubs
- They attacked sans-culottes and jacobins in the streets, felled Trees of Liberty, trampled on tricolore cockades and forced the closure of pro-jacobin clubs.
- Encouraged by Fréron
146
The Directory
- Created in the Constitution of November 1795 which was drawn up by Thermidorians in August 1795 and was ratified by plebiscite in September 1795
- Sought to limit the power of individual politicians.
147
The Directory of Five
- 5 Directors would be chosen by the Ancients from a list provided by the Five Hundred
- The Directors formed the executive and appointed ministers
- One member, chosen by lot, would retire each year and none could also sit in the Councils
148
Council of Five Hundred
- Comprised of deputies over the age of 30
- Proposed and drew up all legislation but did not vote on it
149
Council of Ancients
- Comprised 250 married or widowed men over 40
- Examined and approved or rejected legislation, but did not propose it
150
Mandats
- A type of land purchase bond, similar to assignats
- Issued by Ramal & wrote of 2/3 of government debt
- February 1796: 800 million francs worth of mandats were issued to replace the 24 billion francs worth of assignats that were still in circulation
- They were so rapidly counterfitted, that within a year they were virtually worth nothing leading to them being withdrawn
151
Coup
152
Dry guillotine
- Deportation to Guiana
- Named that because the climate killed many
153
Treaty of Campo Formio
- 17 October 1797
- Signed by Napoleon and Count Philipp von Cobenzl without prior Directory approval.
- **Key Terms:**
- French control over former Austrian Netherlands (Belgium).
- Austria accepted the French Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics.
- Austria gained part of the Venetian Republic.
- France secured the Rhine frontier and several Mediterranean and Adriatic islands.
- **Outcome:**
- Europe reshaped to French advantage.
- Ended the War of the First Coalition.
- Only Britain remained at war with France.
- Major boost to Napoleon’s fame.
154
War of the Second Coalition
- Austrian formed an Anti-French coalition with Britain, Russia, the Ottoman Empire, Portugal and German and Italian states
- August 1799: Left Egypt after reports of Russian & Austrian victory in Italy and Germany. They were on French borders
- October 1799: Napoleon returned and Russia withdrew
155
Egyptian Campaign
- **Napoleon's Aims:**
- Protect trade, attack British commerce, disrupt route to India.
- Distract British Navy to enable invasion of England.
- Build French influence in the Middle East (ally with Tipu Sultan).
- Export Enlightenment ideas; win easy victories.
- **Key Events:**
- March 1798: Directory approved
- May 1798: Napoleon sailed with 35,000 troops (Army of the Orient).
- May 1798: Captured Malta.
- July 1798: French victories at Alexandria and Battle of the Pyramids.
- August 1798: Nelson destroyed French fleet at Aboukir Bay.
- March 1799: Took Jaffa but failed at Acre; massacred 2,000 prisoners.
- May–June 1799: Retreated and returned to Cairo.
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Consulate
157
Infernal Machine
- 24 December 1800 assassination attempt of Napoleon
- A wagon which contained gunpowder and sharpnel which was set off when Napoleons carriage passed
- 52 killed or wounded including Napoleon's stepdaughter Hortense
- Shows Napoleon was not univerally accepted
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Plebiscite
159
Consul for Life
160
Legion of Honour
161
Imperial Nobility
162
Lycées
163
Imperial University
164
Le Moniteur
165
Concordat
166
Peace of Amiens
167
Organic Articles
168
Official Catechism
169
Concordat of Fontainebleau
170
Tribunate
171
Civil Code/Napoleonic Code
172
Prefects
-
173
Gendarmerie
174
Civilian/Administrative Police
175
Banque de France
176
Continental System
177
Sale of Louisiana
178
Battle of Trafalgar
179
Confederation of the Rhine
180
War of the Third Coalition
181
Peace of Tilst
182
Pays alliés/Satellite states
183
Pays réunis
184
Inner empire
- Consisted of pays réunis and the pays alliés immediately beyond this
- Well-integrated, efficently administered and largely obedient
- Policy of ralliement created a loyal administrative class
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Outer empire
- Remianing pays alliés and conquered territories
- Less enthusiastic about French rule
- Administrative control rested on an insecure alliance of local collaborators and French professionals both who were unpopular with their subjects
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France First
187
Dotations
- Introduced in 1806
- Endowment which granted individuals revenue rights from seized Italian, German, or Polish lands under imperial control
- Heritable through the male line, but not sellable without the Emperor’s consent
- Recipients swore loyalty to the Emperor
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Berlin Decree
189
Milan Decree
190
Serfdom
A system in which people were the property of the landowner
191
Grand Armée
192
Jourdan's Law
193
Peninsular War
194
Guerilla Warfare
- Military action by irregular bands avoiding direct confrontation with the larger opposing forces.
- Suprise ambushes, night raids and vicious attacks
- They did not wear uniforms in order to blend in with civilians
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Treaty of Schönbrunn
- 14 October 1809
- Austria lost 83,000 km² & 1/6 of its population
- France gained Adriatic lands, Croatia, Carinthia & Carniola
- Russia took East Galicia, Grand Duchy of Warsaw got West Galicia
- Bavaria expanded its territory
- Austria paid indemnity, reduced army to 150,000, and joined the Continental System
- Alliance sealed by Napoleon’s marriage to Marie-Louise
196
War of the Fourth Coalition
197
Malet Conspiracy
- Malet was a former Jacobin General who had been imprisoned for opposition to Napoleon.
- October 1812: Maler put a rumor that Napoleon died in Moscow
- Persuaded troops to arrest officials & restore the republic.
- An officer’s suspicion led to his arrest, interrogation, and execution.
- Exposed the Empire’s dependence on Napoleon.
198
First Peace of Paris
199
Vienna Congress
- Hosted by Emperor Francis I of Austria, lasting 8 months and costed the equivilent £7 million
- Business handled through informal talks & 10 committees
- Full assembly met only in June 1815 to sign what they thought would be the final agreement
- Francis hosted 4 kings, 2 crown princes, 3 grand duchesses, 32 German royals, plus servants
- 215 princes, officials, and state representatives also attended
200
Second Peace of Paris
201
Bourbon Restoration
202
Hundred Days
20 March 1815 - 22 June 1815
- Napoleon resumed rule after his escape from Elba where he signed his second abdication
- Napoleon tries to establish a new form of government through Acte Additionel
- Also preoccupied by defeating his old enemies
203
Acte Additionel
- Prepared by Benjamin Constant
- Legislative power was held by the Emperor and a 2-chamber Parliament: hereditary peers appointed by the Emperor and representatives 629 elected citizens serving 5-year terms elected by electoral colleges in départements
- Ministers were accountable to Parliament until rights were guaranteed
- Lasted only a month, ending after Napoleon's second abdication
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Conseil d'Etat
- Council of State
- Dealt with major issues of state and foreign affairs
- Met in presence of King
205
Conseil des Dépêches
- Met in presence of King
- Received despatches from the King's officials in the provinces and dealt with Church affairs
206
Conseil Royal des Finances
- Met in presence of King
- Managed state finance and household cost
- From 1787 it handled economic policy
207
Verona Declaration
- June 1795
- Louis XVIII, Comte de Provence, promised to restore French glory and take revenge on all regicides.
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Italian Campaign
- Rapid Montenotte campaign vs Austrian allies, Piedmontese.
- April 1796: Piedmont-Sardinia withdrew from the War of the First Coalition via Armistice of Cherasco.
- May 1796: Armistices confirmed in Paris, ceding Savoy and Nice to France.
- May 1796: Battle of Lodi vs Austrians.
- May 1796: Establishment of client states - Cispadane Republic and Transpadane Republic.
- June 1797: Creation of Cisalpine Republic, with Milan as capital and a structured government.
- June 1797: Establishment of Ligurian Republic around Genoa.
- April 1797: Negotiation with Austria leading to Treaty of Campo Formio.
Outcome:
- Reshaped Europe to French design, ended War of the First Coalition.
- Except for Britain, most major powers at peace with France.
- Marked significant rise in Napoleon's fame.
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Coup of Brumaire
- 9-10 November 1799
Aim:
- Overthrow the Directory and create a new government.
Plan:
- Persuade Directors to resign.
- Move Councils away from Paris under pretense of a Jacobin threat.
- Establish a commission for a new constitution.
Key events:
- Napoleon took control of troops and stormed the Councils.
- Sieyès, Ducos resigned; Barras was pressured to resign by Talleyrand.
- Directory effectively collapsed; new government with three Consuls formed.
