Knowledge Flashcards
(67 cards)
1
Q
What are concepts?
A
- general knowledge of a category; a mental representation of it
- non detailed
- hold in semantic memory
2
Q
What are categories?
A
- items that are grouped together according to concept
3
Q
What are exemplars?
A
- individual items within a category
- example
4
Q
What is concept organization of inclusivity?
A
- concepts are organized from general to specific in this hierarchy
5
Q
What are the levels in inclusivity concept organization?
A
- superordinate
- basic
- subordinate
6
Q
What is the superordinate level?
A
- most general way to categorize
- like mammal or fish
7
Q
What is the basic level?
A
- how we talk about things in the world
- like deer and dog or trout and shark
8
Q
What is the subordinate level?
A
- lowest level of inclusion, most specific, detailed representation
- like terrier and spaniel or hammerhead and great white
9
Q
How do children learn based on the levels in inclusivity concept organization?
A
- children learn basic, superordinate, then subordinate concepts
10
Q
What is the link between inclusivity organization and semantic dementia?
A
- Semantic dementia patients can use basic level concepts (dog), becomes impaired as the disease progresses
- Early in disease, basic level concepts are accessed (when see picture of dog, will say dog)
- As the disease progresses, use general concepts (when see picture of a dog, will say animal)
11
Q
What is cognitive economy?
A
- balance between accessing general enough information to separate that info from other things for the purpose you have
- organization allows for efficient access of knowledge for given situation
- use the simplest terms that is still meaningful for the situation
- General public “This is an owl”
- Birders ”This is a snowy owl”
- allows us to keep all info relevant to whatever decisions we’re making more manageable
12
Q
What is a graded concept organization (gradiation)?
A
- dog is a better representation of mammal than deer
- trout is better representation of fish than others
13
Q
What is generilization?
A
- the process of deriving a concept from specific experiences
- generalize knowledge to recognize new things
14
Q
The ability to refer to this object as both a musical instrument and as a violin reflects ________?
a. The notion of concept inclusivity
b. Accessing superordinate concept information
c. The notion of graded organization
d. Generalization
A
a
15
Q
What is concept learning?
A
- Concepts involve forming rules about lists features
- defining vs characteristic features
- Feature comparison between encountered items and list
- Refines what a defining features is for a concept
16
Q
What are defining features?
A
- necessary and sufficient for category membership
17
Q
What are characteristic features?
A
- those common but not essential for category membership
18
Q
What does concept learning work well for?
A
- simple concepts
19
Q
What does concept learning not work well for?
A
- complex concepts that are subject to variability (a fur less dog)
- ambiguous concepts (student, bachelor, hot dog)
20
Q
What is the cube rule?
A
6 cube like shapes that define:
- toast
- sandwich
- taco
- sushi
- soup/salad
- calzone
21
Q
What are concepts represented by?
A
- similarity
- Concepts are not based on defined features, rather are defined by the resemblance to a collection of features
- There is no single attribute that defines a game rather there is a ‘family resemblance’, some inherent similarity
22
Q
What are fuzzy boundaries?
A
- Items are, more or less, part of a category
- An item can be categorized into more than one category
23
Q
What is a feature list?
A
- a list of features belonging to a concept
- early learning
24
Q
What are networks?
A
- graded or inclusive structure
- like a word web
- words closer to the concept are closer on the web
- later learning
25
What is prototype theory?
- categories are formed from the overlap of exemplars
- extracted from experience
- Each category has an abstracted prototype that is pre-stored in memory
- This represents the most common features with other members
- Exemplars included in a category network around that prototype
- Similar items are stored closer to the prototype than dissimilar items
26
What is the dot study for prototype theory?
- Participants learned to classify dot patterns that were variants of a prototype
- They did not see this prototype
- Participants classified the studied patterns, new patterns and the prototype into groups
- Worse at classifying new compared to old patterns
- Equally able to classify prototype and old patterns
27
What is a prototype?
- The prototype is an abstracted exemplar
- Other members resemble the prototype to different degrees
- The more obscure members are farther away from the prototype in the network
28
What is the typicality effect?
- A preference for processing items close to the prototype
- faster to recognize a robin as a bird over a penguin
29
What is the role of context in prototype theory?
- concepts are context independent
- does also not account for how a situation determines concept representation
30
What affects the typicality effect?
- context
- if show a farm, chicken is typical
- but in city, chicken is not
31
What is exemplar theory?
- There is no single abstract prototype for a concept
- Every instance of a category is stored in memory, not a prototype
- Explains how context can influence concept representations
- Experience and situational context used to form concepts at retrieval
32
How to determine if a new item is a member of a category in exemplar theory?
- Retrieve some or all exemplars of category members
- Compute similarity to new item at the time of concept determination
33
What are knowledge based theories?
- Explanation rather than similarity-based view of concept categorization
- Implicit intuitive knowledge used
- no rules, features, or experience
- essentialism
34
What is essentialism?
- The idea that certain categories have an underlying reality or true nature that one cannot observe
35
Imagine you are asked to name all the colors you can think of. According to the typicality effect, which of the following are you likely to name first?
a. green
b. turquoise
c. magenta
d. violet
a
36
What is an embodied view of concepts?
- Concepts are accessed as a function of the environment and current goals
- Concepts are processed in different brain networks, and shift depending on what is required to be accessed from a concept
- concepts not abstract
2 ways to see concepts:
- change with our goals and the environment
- concepts make use of sensory, motor, emotional and other cognitive capacities in how we store them
37
What are ad hoc categories?
- A category concept that is invented for a specific purpose or goal
- Bringing together dissimilar members into a single temporary category to meet a goal
- Related to creativity
example: things that can catch on fire
38
Embodiment and the brain
- Knowledge is stored as sensorimotor neural representations
- The representation that is accessed is done as function of what information (sense/percept) is required
- simulation is important for processing and representing concepts
- re enacting concept in mind
39
What is the perceptual symbols system?
- Perception and conceptual knowledge are linked as ‘perceptual symbols’
- Activating a concept will engage certain sensory-perceptions to engage mental simulation as a function of the goals of the current task
- Highlights the importance of perception but also goals in storing and accessing knowledge
- access distinct features
- different features are processed differently
- rejects idea that concepts are represented abstractly
- perceptual processes are used to create situations, processes distinct from each other so we can access them distinctly
- knowledge of concept is stored across senses
40
What is the property verification task for perceptual symbols system?
- Property verification task
- People are faster to respond if a previous trial asked about a feature from the same sense/percept
- Concepts represented via senses/perceptions
41
What are the brain representations?
- In an MRI scanner, participants passively read action words (pick, kick, lick)
- Specific brain region that process movements associated with those words (fingers, foot, tongue) were active
- Concepts are rooted in motor and sensory activity
42
What are the neuropsychological case studies?
- Brain injury cases of people with category specific deficits
- Some have selective impairment in naming living things (can't name animals but can name tools)
- Some have selective impairment in naming non-living things (name tools but not animals)
43
What are sensory functional theories?
- Concepts represented by defining feature
- Living things are defined by visual features (visual processing regions)
- Inanimate objects (tools) are defined by functional features (motor cortical regions)
44
What is the Commonsense Knowledge Problem?
a. A person's environmental context (e.g. where they grow up) changes what they believe is "common sense"
b. All computer programs pull from the same "common sense" database, which lacks ecological validity when modelling human cognition
c. A person's priming task performance may be influenced by outside knowledge
d. Computer programs do not have the same implicit knowledge as people, and therefore they must be explicitly coded to contain "common sense" knowledge
d
45
What does it mean for a defining feature to be “necessary and sufficient”, according to the classical approach for categorization?
a. If that feature is present, it qualifies inclusion in the category. Without that feature, it cannot be included in the category
b. If that feature is present, it qualifies inclusion in the category. If the feature is not present, it may still be included in the category under special circumstances
c. If that feature is present, it may or may not qualify inclusion in the category, depending on context
a
46
Raymonde is asked to name household pets. She names “dog” first and “tarantula” last. This is an example of what?
a. A typicality effect
b. A semantic priming effect
c. A hub-and-spoke effect
d. A feature effect
a
47
According to Rosch’s model, a prototype can be defined as...
a. An example that represents the ideal member of a category, created by remembering the best example of a previously observed member of that category
b. An abstract concept that represents the ideal member of a category, created by fulfilling every defining feature of that category
c. An example of the most typical member of a category, created by remembering the most commonly observed member of that category
d. An abstract concept that represents the most typical member of a category, created by averaging out all previously observed members of that category
d
48
Bastian and Haslam (2006) found what evidence for the relationship between categorization and stereotyping?
a. Faster performance on a lexical decision task was associated with greater stereotyping
b. Greater amounts of psychologically essentialist beliefs were associated with greater stereotyping
c. Better performance on a rectangle categorization task was associated with greater stereotyping
d. Lesser amounts of psychologically essentialist beliefs were associated with greater stereotyping
b
49
According to Rosch (1976), which is the level of knowledge storage that is maximally informative and distinctive?
a. The superordinate level
b. The subordinate level
c. The advanced level
d. The basic level
d
50
Which of the following options lists only distributed networks?
a. Collins and Qullian's hierarchical model
b. Collins and Loftus's spreading activation model
c. Neural networks
d. Both neural networks and the spreading activation model
c
51
Which of the following is an example of a “spoke” in the hub-and-spoke model?
a. An apple
b. The taste of an apple
c. Fruit
d. A granny smith apple
b
52
What is the relationship between a concept and category?
a. Categories are groupings of real objects and concepts are mental representations
b. Concepts are related to exemplars and categories are exemplars
c. Categories are concrete and concepts are abstract
d. Concepts are groupings of real objects and categories are mental representations
a
53
What does it mean for a defining feature to be "necessary and sufficient", according to the classical approach for categorization?
a. If that feature is present, it may or may not qualify inclusion in the category, depending on context
b. If that feature is present, it qualifies inclusion in the category. If the feature is not present, it may still be included in the category under special circumstances
c. If that feature is present, it qualifies inclusion in the category. Without that feature, it cannot be included in the category
c
54
A category is a grouping of
things in the world, real things, real world things, real-world things
55
Knowledge-based views of categorization propose we categorize items based on which of the following?
a. category knowledge we've learned through experience
b. implicit ideas about categorization
c. essential features
d. semantic similarities
b
56
Which of the following is the BEST definition for a prototype?
a. An example that represents the ideal member of a category, created by remembering the best example of a previously observed member of that category
b. An abstract concept that represents the most typical member of a category, created by averaging out all previously observed members of that category
c. An abstract concept that represents the ideal member of a category, created by fulfilling every defining feature of that category
d. An example of the most typical member of a category, created by remembering the most commonly observed member of that category
b
57
According to Perceptual Symbols Theory by Barsalou, cognition is associated with our sensory experiences. Therefore, knowledge is not stored as a single representation of a concept. If that is the case, according to Barsalou, how is knowledge stored?
a. abstract knowledge networks
b. single neurons representing the knowledge turning off or on
c. distributed patterns of activity across many different brain regions
d. specified pattern of activity in a very brain regions
c
58
While there is not a general theory of embodied cognition, which of the following is generally believed to be part of the theory?
a. The body is unrelated to cognition
b. The body influences cognition
c. The body does not interact with cognition
d. The body has no role in cognition
b
59
How is the idea of family resemblance related to typicality?
a. Both family resemblance and typicality are ways to describe characteristic features
b. People give family resemblance ratings in the same way that they give typicality ratings
c. Family resemblance is another term for prototype
d. Category members that have the most family resemblance with other members are considered the most typical
d
60
Semantic dementia is associated with damage in which brain area?
a. anterior frontal lobe
b. anterior parietal lobe
c. posterior temporal lobe
d. anterior temporal lobe
d
61
According to the classical view of categorization, a grandmother is a mother whose child is a parent. Although some grandmothers might be seniors or have grey hair, these are not required to be a grandmother. The fact that a grandmother has to have a child who is a parent in order to be considered a grandmother is an example of what type of feature?
a. categorization features
b. commonsense features
c. exemplar features
d. defining features
d
62
_______ theory of concept learning suggests we consider past experiences when determining if an encountered object belongs to a concept category.
Exemplar
63
You learned about how concept knowledge is organized - at different levels. Which is the level of knowledge storage that is maximally informative and distinctive and most used?
a. The subordinate level
b. The superordinate level
c. The advanced level
d. The basic level
e. The ordinate level
d
64
Raymonde is asked to name household pets. She names "dog" first and "tarantula" last. This is an example of what?
a. A feature effect
b. A semantic priming effect
c. A typicality effect
d. A hub-and-spoke effect
c
65
people remember more detail about their last visit to the dentist when they are reclined in a chair compared to when they are standing up. What idea does this support?
a. The body influences thought
b. The body has a causal role in thought
c. Memory is better when retrieval is similar to encoding
d. We can use information from our bodies to improve memory when the situation is highly specific
a
66
According to ________ theories of concepts, categorization is simply a matter of considering the defining features of individual exemplars? For example, if an exemplar possesses the required defining features, it belongs to that category; if it doesn't possess the necessary features, then it doesn't belong to the category.
knowledge
67
Which of the following notions concerning concept organization helps explain priming?
a. Hierarchical organization of concepts
b. The idea of having a prototype
c. Episodic memory contributions to concepts
d. Spreading activation
d
