L04 - Republican Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, 1793-1798 Flashcards
(133 cards)
1
Q
What major change occurred in Saint-Domingue between 1791 and 1793?
A
Saint-Domingue transformed from the wealthiest and most exploitative New World slave society to a colony where slavery was abolished, and the black population became legally free.
2
Q
What happened to the political and military power in Saint-Domingue by 1793?
A
Whites lost their monopoly, many fled the island, and free men of color rose to top positions in the French army and political power.
3
Q
What were the competing forces in Saint-Domingue during the early 1790s?
A
Revolutionary France fought against its European enemies, including Spanish and British forces, alongside internal uprisings.
4
Q
What characterized Saint-Domingue from 1793 to 1798?
A
The violence gradually subsided, and a racially egalitarian society began to emerge with slavery officially abolished.
5
Q
Who primarily composed the French army in Saint-Domingue after 1793?
A
Soldiers of African descent fighting under the French colors.
6
Q
What role did Toussaint Louverture play during this period?
A
Louverture emerged as the ruler of most of Saint-Domingue, using his military and political talents to stabilize the colony.
7
Q
How did France’s government respond to the situation in Saint-Domingue by the late 1790s?
A
It appeared to accept the idea of the colony being governed by a black ex-slave as part of a republican empire without racial distinctions.
8
Q
What was the initial reaction of Britain and the United States to the upheavals in Saint-Domingue?
A
They feared the events might spread to their territories but later adjusted and sought to use the situation to their advantage in conflicts with France.
9
Q
What possibility did the period of “republican emancipation” (1793–1798) suggest?
A
It suggested the potential for a peaceful resolution to the struggles in Saint-Domingue.
10
Q
What was the goal of French authorities in Saint-Domingue during the 1790s despite the abolition of slavery?
A
To ensure the plantation system continued to operate, even without slavery.
11
Q
What decision did the French National Convention make on July 16, 1793, regarding Sonthonax and Polverel?
A
They voted to recall the two commissioners and put them on trial for abusing their powers.
12
Q
How did white colonists in France react to the actions of Sonthonax and Polverel in Saint-Domingue?
A
They lobbied against them, accusing them of aiding France’s enemies and destroying the colony.
13
Q
Why did Sonthonax and Polverel continue their mission despite their recall?
A
Abandoning their mission would have divided Saint-Domingue between foreign occupiers and local warlords, jeopardizing the abolition decrees.
14
Q
Why did the British invasion of Saint-Domingue fail to gain significant ground?
A
British troops suffered heavy losses from disease and faced resistance, including from free men of color who switched allegiance to the French.
15
Q
What internal conflicts weakened the black leaders allied with the Spanish?
A
Leaders like Jean-François, Biassou, and Toussaint Louverture spent as much energy fighting each other as they did opposing the French.
16
Q
How did the Spanish alienate black leaders in Saint-Domingue?
A
The Spanish government’s guarantees of property to white colonists showed they were not committed to abolition.
17
Q
What significant decree did the French National Convention issue on February 4, 1794 (16 pluviôse Year II)?
A
The decree abolished slavery in all French colonies and declared all men in the colonies, regardless of color, French citizens with equal rights.
18
Q
Who were the three deputies from Saint-Domingue that influenced the National Convention in 1794?.
A
Louis Dufay (white colonist), Jean-Baptiste Belley (free black officer), and Jean-Baptiste Mills (free man of color)
19
Q
What argument did Louis Dufay present to the National Convention?
A
He argued that abolition was necessary to keep Saint-Domingue French and assured that freed slaves would work and fight for the colony.
20
Q
Why is Toussaint Louverture’s “turnaround” in May 1794 considered a decisive moment?
A
It strengthened the French position in Saint-Domingue and promoted the cause of emancipation.
20
Q
What marked Toussaint Louverture’s significant shift in allegiance in May 1794?
A
He switched from supporting the Spanish to joining the French, possibly motivated by the abolition decree or his rivalry with other black leaders.
21
Q
What contradiction undermined Spanish efforts to win over Saint-Domingue’s population?
A
The Spanish guaranteed property rights to whites while simultaneously trying to support black insurgents.
21
Q
How did the National Convention celebrate the decree of abolition?
A
With a public ceremony in Notre Dame, declaring it a new era of human history and emphasizing natural liberty.
22
Q
Who painted the iconic portrait of Jean-Baptiste Belley, a deputy from Saint-Domingue?
A
Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson, a leading French artist of the revolutionary period.
22
Why were Sonthonax and Polverel recalled by the French National Convention in July 1793?
They were accused of abusing their powers and labeled as traitors bent on destroying Saint-Domingue to aid France’s enemies.
23
What challenges did foreign forces face in Saint-Domingue in late 1793?
British soldiers and their allies suffered heavy losses from disease and failed to penetrate inland from the coastal areas.
23
What does Girodet’s portrait of Jean-Baptiste Belley symbolize?
It highlights the Enlightenment ideals of equality and Belley’s role as a black deputy in the French legislature.
24
Why did some free men of color switch allegiance from the British to the French?
They realized the British did not intend to treat them equally with white French colonists.
25
What did the French National Convention decree on 16 pluviôse Year II (4 February 1794)?
The abolition of slavery in all colonies and the declaration that all men living in colonies were French citizens with equal rights.
26
When and why did Toussaint Louverture join the French?
In May 1794, possibly influenced by the Convention’s abolition of slavery or as a strategic move against rival black leaders.
27
How did Toussaint Louverture’s alliance with the French change the balance of power?
His 4,000 soldiers strengthened the French position, connecting territories and threatening British and Spanish forces.
27
How did Toussaint Louverture’s early life prepare him for leadership?
As the son of an African military leader, a freed slave, and literate individual, he navigated both black and white societies effectively.
28
What role did Toussaint play in the 1791 slave uprising and its aftermath?
Though his involvement in launching the uprising is unclear, he became one of its key leaders by 1793.
29
What distinguished Toussaint Louverture’s leadership style regarding his officers?
He recruited outstanding officers like Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Moïse, and Henry Christophe, and associated them with his decisions, as shown by having over thirty sign a reply to the French in June 1793.
30
How did Toussaint Louverture ensure his correspondence was effective?
He recruited white secretaries to write his letters in clear and polished French, unlike other black generals who used broken French.
31
How did Toussaint Louverture improve his soldiers’ skills?
He employed captured white prisoners with military experience to train his troops.
31
What do Toussaint Louverture’s letters to General Laveaux from 1794 to 1796 reveal about his leadership?
They show his attention to military details, strategic planning, advocacy for troop provisions, and his skill at deducing enemy intentions.
31
How did Toussaint Louverture stay informed about the larger political context?
He kept himself informed about events in Europe and elsewhere, understanding the broader implications of the struggle in Saint-Domingue
32
How did Toussaint Louverture manage his subordinates?
He praised and rewarded loyal subordinates, ensured discipline, and reined in those who tried to operate independently.
32
What was Toussaint Louverture’s vision for the future of Saint-Domingue?
He aimed to create an orderly society integrating blacks, free men of color, and whites, maintaining good relations with all groups.
33
What characterized Toussaint Louverture’s political skills?
He was skilled at assessing motives, concealing his own intentions, and framing arguments to appeal to different audiences.
33
How did Toussaint Louverture interact with French authorities?
He maintained respectful relations, often addressing Laveaux as “Papa,” but criticized his lack of initiative and appealed directly to the French government.
34
How did Toussaint’s religious beliefs differ from French republican ideals?
Unlike the French government’s hostility to the Catholic Church, Toussaint upheld religious principles and counseled Laveaux with Christian references.
34
What did Toussaint emphasize in his 1796 proclamation to “you Africans, my brothers”?
He reminded them of his leadership against tyranny and their numerical strength, urging loyalty to France.
34
How did Toussaint Louverture address plantation labor after the revolution?
He enforced regulations for plantation labor, ensuring cultivators worked hard and treated white plantation owners humanely.
35
When was Toussaint first mentioned in the European press?
In June 1795, a Paris newspaper acknowledged his leadership under the republican banner.
35
Why did Toussaint support the plantation system?
Like Sonthonax and Polverel, he believed plantations were essential for the colony’s economy and societal order.
35
How did Toussaint balance loyalty to France with black solidarity?
He promoted loyalty to France while emphasizing the blacks’ numerical advantage and his role as their leader.
36
How did Toussaint Louverture define freedom for former slaves?
He insisted freedom did not mean unrestricted behavior, promoting discipline, work, and obedience to laws.
36
How did Toussaint Louverture consolidate power in 1795?
He oversaw the election of deputies to the French legislature, ensuring they praised his leadership and contributions.
36
How did Toussaint manage rivalries with other commanders?
He criticized rivals like Villatte, emphasized his support for southern commanders, and cultivated French support to outmaneuver them.
36
Why was the South Province crucial to Saint-Domingue's economy under Rigaud?
It was less affected by slave uprisings and military operations, allowing trade with American ships to continue.
36
With whom did Toussaint Louverture negotiate successfully after 1794?
He adeptly negotiated with Spanish, French, and British authorities, maintaining his influence across groups.
36
By 1794, which leader overshadowed Pierre Pinchinat?
André Rigaud, the free colored military commander in the South Province, overshadowed Pierre Pinchinat.
36
How did Toussaint gather intelligence on his enemies?
He recruited a network of informants among blacks serving the British and Spanish.
37
Who was Pierre Pinchinat, and what role did he play in Saint-Domingue?
Pierre Pinchinat was a free colored leader who negotiated concordats with white royalists in 1791 and 1792 but switched to the republican camp in late 1792.
37
What key military success did André Rigaud achieve in 1794?
Rigaud prevented British forces in Port-au-Prince from linking up with those in the Grande Anse.
37
Why was André Rigaud’s territory important to the colony's economy?
The South Province was less affected by slave uprisings and military operations, and it maintained trade with American ships, providing sugar, coffee, and supplies to fund the colony's defense.
37
What significant appointment did Rigaud receive in June 1794?
Polverel officially appointed Rigaud as governor of the South Province.
37
How did Rigaud's leadership differ from Toussaint Louverture's in terms of representation?
Rigaud represented the elitist pretensions of wealthy free men of color, while Toussaint, a former slave, represented the black majority.
37
Who primarily commanded Rigaud's forces?
Officers who were light-skinned men of mixed race, like Rigaud himself.
37
What was the condition of blacks in regions occupied by the British in Saint-Domingue?
They were still subjected to legal servitude, although the system was increasingly disrupted.
37
What role did Guadeloupe play in French efforts in the Caribbean?
Under Victor Hugues, it became a base for privateering that disrupted British commerce
38
What measure did Rigaud take in May 1793 concerning black slaves?
He offered freedom to black slaves who joined his army, forming the "Legion of the South."
38
Why were free men of color viewed with suspicion by the French?
They were seen as prone to seeking self-rule and had sometimes allied with the British.
38
ow were black troops treated in Guadeloupe under French rule?
They were recruited for military positions and given civil rights but not full citizenship.
38
How did British manpower shortages affect their reliance on black troops?
The British promised freedom to blacks who served in their forces, contributing to the decline of slavery.
38
What impact did the Spanish withdrawal have on Toussaint Louverture?
It left Toussaint as the sole major black military leader in Saint-Domingue.
38
What led the Spanish to withdraw from Saint-Domingue in 1795?
Spain signed the Treaty of Basle, ceding Santo Domingo to France after their military defeat in southern France.
39
What did the new French Constitution of 1795 promise for the colonies?
The abolition of slavery would remain, and the colonies would be fully integrated into the French Republic under the same laws as the metropole.
39
What promotions did General Laveaux recommend in July 1795?
He recommended promotions for Toussaint Louverture, André Rigaud, Bauvais, and Villatte to the rank of generals in the French army.
39
Who was Pierre Pinchinat, and what role did he play in the colony's politics?
Pierre Pinchinat was a free colored leader who negotiated concordats with white royalists in 1791-1792, later joined the republican camp in 1792, and influenced free colored groups.
39
How did André Rigaud’s military forces reflect racial dynamics?
Rigaud’s "Legion of the South" consisted primarily of black soldiers but was commanded by light-skinned men of mixed race, demonstrating racial stratification within the leadership.
40
Who overshadowed Pierre Pinchinat by 1794, and what was his role?
André Rigaud, a free colored military commander in the South Province, overshadowed Pinchinat by successfully defending the province against British forces and becoming its governor in June 1794.
41
What was the relationship between free men of color and the French?
The free men of color were seen as potential threats by the French due to their ambitions for autonomy and occasional alliances with the British in the West Province.
42
How did the British approach slavery in their occupied territories in Saint-Domingue?
The British maintained slavery but promised freedom to blacks who served in their military forces, contributing to the erosion of the slave system.
43
What was the significance of Jean Kina in the British military efforts?
Jean Kina, a black commander, led a mixed-race unit for the British, highlighting the paradox of using black troops to support slavery.
43
What major event in Europe caused the Spanish to withdraw from Saint-Domingue in 1795?
The Treaty of Basle in July 1795 ended the Spanish war effort, leading to their cession of Santo Domingo to France.
43
How did Toussaint Louverture solidify his position after the Spanish withdrawal?
Toussaint emerged as the dominant black leader after rivals Jean-François and Biassou left with the Spanish forces.
43
What role did General Laveaux play in recognizing the contributions of black leaders?
Laveaux recommended promotions for Toussaint Louverture and others, leading to their recognition as generals in the French army in July 1795.
44
What was the Directory, and how did it influence colonial policy?
The Directory, established in 1795, maintained the abolition of slavery in French colonies and aimed to integrate them into the Republic.
44
Who comprised the Third Civil Commission, and what was their mission?
The Third Civil Commission, including Sonthonax, Julien Raimond, Philippe Roume, Pierre Leblanc, and Marc Antoine Giraud, aimed to enforce emancipation and stabilize the colony.
45
What led to Villatte’s coup in 1796, and what were its implications?
Villatte’s coup in Cap Français sought to exclude blacks from leadership, highlighting racial tensions and challenging French authority.
45
How did Toussaint Louverture respond to Villatte’s coup?
Toussaint marched to Cap Français, forced Villatte to abandon his plans, restored Laveaux, and was rewarded with the position of deputy governor.
46
How did the Third Civil Commission’s arrival impact political struggles in Saint-Domingue?
The Commission reaffirmed abolition and equality while attempting to curtail the power of military leaders like Toussaint Louverture and André Rigaud.
47
How did the Commission deal with André Rigaud in the South Province?
The Commission blamed Rigaud and free men of color for exploiting blacks and tried to dismantle his army, undermining his control.
47
What happened in Cayes on August 11, 1796?
Blacks, roused by the local free men of color, invaded Cayes, massacring several whites. Rigaud restored order after the killings and expelled the French delegates whose confrontational actions provoked the violence.
48
Why did the British believe they could succeed in Saint-Domingue in 1796?
The conflicts between Toussaint Louverture, the free men of color, and the French commissioners made the British optimistic about achieving success.
48
What was the British military strategy in Saint-Domingue in 1796-1797?
They landed 12,000 fresh troops and inflicted significant defeats on Toussaint’s forces in mid-1796. However, by late 1797, the British decided the expedition was too costly and prepared to withdraw.
49
How did Toussaint Louverture consolidate his power after defeating the British?
He pressured the election of deputies, including Sonthonax and Laveaux, to represent Saint-Domingue in France, thereby removing key white officials with influence among the black population
49
What disagreements arose between Sonthonax and Toussaint Louverture in 1797?
They disagreed on:
-Returning black soldiers to farm work.
-Privateering against American ships (Sonthonax’s policy).
-Restoring the church (Toussaint’s initiative).
49
How did political changes in France in 1797 impact Saint-Domingue?
Counterrevolutionary forces in France pushed for Sonthonax's dismissal and hinted at restoring slavery, encouraging Toussaint to eliminate French officials from the colony.
49
What ultimatum did Toussaint give Sonthonax on August 20, 1797?
Toussaint demanded Sonthonax leave the colony to "go tell France what you have seen" and defend the cause of emancipation.
49
How did Toussaint Louverture address the French government regarding Saint-Domingue’s future?
He:
-Refuted pro-slavery arguments.
-Emphasized black loyalty in defending the colony.
-Warned against French attempts to reimpose authority, asserting that blacks would defend their liberty.
50
What role did Julien Raimond play during Toussaint's rise to power?
Raimond aligned with Toussaint, benefiting by acquiring abandoned plantations with Toussaint’s support.
51
What justification did Toussaint Louverture provide for expelling Sonthonax?
Toussaint claimed Sonthonax had plotted for Saint-Domingue’s independence and presented himself as the protector of French authority and emancipation.
51
What is the content of Toussaint Louverture's Letter to France?
Toussaint offered France a choice between accepting black freedom under his leadership or risking the destruction of the colony.
51
What are the major conflicts?
French attempts to control the colony vs. Toussaint’s consolidation of power, tensions with the free men of color, and resistance to the British invasion.
52
Who are key players?
Rigaud, Sonthonax, Toussaint Louverture, Julien Raimond, and the British forces.
52
What is the impact?
Toussaint emerged as the dominant figure in Saint-Domingue, maneuvering diplomatically and militarily to secure black emancipation and his own leadership.
52
What is the content of Toussaint Louverture's Letter to France in relation to property rights?
He claimed property rights of former white plantation owners were respected, and blacks were returning to fieldwork.
53
What is the content of Toussaint Louverture's Letter to France in relation to racial equality?
Toussaint claimed that whites, free people of color, and blacks lived in equality.
53
What is the September 1797 Coup?
Militant republicans led by Napoleon Bonaparte ousted counterrevolutionary deputies, reaffirming the abolition of slavery.
54
What is the January 1798 Law?
The Directory passed laws confirming the rights of black and colored individuals, extending civil institutions, and promoting marriage and public education.
55
What was in the Sonthonax’s Report?
-Conditions in Saint-Domingue: Sonthonax claimed improvements, with blacks restoring plantations and embracing work.
-Criticism of Toussaint: Accused Toussaint of plotting independence but agreed conditions were improving.
55
What was life in new black society in terms of field labor?
Plantation workers earned salaries; whipping and physical punishment were banned.
56
What was life in new black society in terms of legal freedom?
Blacks were legally free, with protections against old racial distinctions.
56
What was life in new black society in terms of marriage rights?
Blacks could marry and legalize family ties formed during slavery.
56
What was life in new black society in terms of economic activities?
Blacks acquired property, made contracts, and managed businesses in cities.
57
What were challenges for freed blacks in terms of economic distribution?
Lack of food imports led to hardships; some plantation land was converted to food crops.
57
What were challenges for freed blacks in terms of land ownership issues?
-Land Ownership Issues: Ownership of abandoned plantations remained uncertain.
--Rebel vs. Refugee Owners: French law classified owners based on whether they fled to enemy or neutral countries.
--Government Control: Abandoned plantations were managed or leased, favoring wealthy figures like officers.
58
What were challenges for freed blacks in terms of marginal land settlements?
Poor blacks settled in mountains, exacerbating deforestation and soil erosion.
58
What are examples of black initiative?
-Former Slaves Leasing Land: Some ex-slaves leased plantations, maintaining production while awaiting former owners’ return.
-Subsistence Farming: Many blacks turned to small-scale farming in remote areas, forming a key resistance base for later conflicts.
59
What are observations by former plantation owners?
-Property Conditions: Properties suffered neglect; some mixed-race lessees lacked resources to maintain them.
-Continuing Struggles: Memoirs reflect the challenges of economic recovery and land use during this transitional period.
60
What happened to the plantation's livestock and equipment after the revolution?
Most livestock had disappeared, fields were overgrown with weeds, and lacking draft animals, blacks worked the land with hand tools like hoes.
61
How did a former colonist describe the state of nature on the plantations?
He lamented the devastation, noting that nature was "saddened by not being able to show her generosity."
61
How did the absence of working-age men impact the plantations?
Many men were missing due to military service, leaving women and others to maintain similar population levels but with fewer workers.
61
What percentage of Saint-Domingue's population was under arms by 1798?
Between 10-15% of the population was serving in the military.
61
How did the militarization of Saint-Domingue impact its economy?
With many resources and young men diverted to military service, the economy struggled, and soldiers often took what they needed without working.
61
What challenges did the French colonial administration face in creating an education system?
There was a lack of teachers, textbooks, and resources, and secondary schools had been previously restricted to wealthy families who sent children to Europe.
61
How did women fare in the militarized society of Saint-Domingue?
Women were excluded from the opportunities for advancement provided by military service.
61
What offer did the French government make to black and free-colored leaders regarding education?
They invited leaders to send their children to France for education at government expense.
61
How did Toussaint Louverture’s acceptance of France’s education offer for his sons backfire?
His sons, Isaac and Placide, became virtual hostages of the French government to pressure Louverture.
61
What roles did former slaves take on in Cap Français post-revolution?
They worked as tinsmiths, smelters, ironworkers, carpenters, and other trades, demonstrating a "love of liberty" alongside work.
62
What progress was made in re-establishing civil administration in Saint-Domingue?
New courts were established, a newspaper guided officials, and local officials were urged to spread republican values.
62
Why was it difficult to convince people that the new government would defend their interests?
The law had historically been an instrument of oppression, and accusations of corruption and favoritism were common.
62
How did Cap Français recover after the devastating fire of 1793?
By 1797, over half of the burned buildings were rebuilt, streets were renamed with republican ideals, and business activities resumed.
63
What economic difficulties persisted despite signs of recovery?
Agricultural laborers contested their rights, and disputes arose over how much of the product belonged to them.
63
How did the withdrawal of British forces in 1798 affect Saint-Domingue?
It opened the way for a new society with revived trade prospects and a shift toward independent peasant agriculture.
63
How was Saint-Domingue unique in the Atlantic world in 1798?
It had abolished slavery, had a black leader in Toussaint Louverture, and aimed for multiracial integration in its republican society.
63
What challenges lay ahead for Saint-Domingue despite its progress?
The colony still faced economic struggles, uncertain land ownership, and insufficient "social capital" compared to countries like the United States.
63
What were the early signs of international influence inspired by Saint-Domingue?
Movements like a conspiracy in Bahia, Brazil, cited Saint-Domingue while calling for freedom, equality, fraternity, and the end of slavery.
63
What roles did whites and free men of color continue to play in Saint-Domingue?
Whites contributed to the economy, while free men of color held leading positions in the army.
