L09 - Chapter Four - The Driving Force of the Cuban Revolution

Question 1

What was the nature of Cuba’s internal situation during its changing relationship with the United States in the late 1950s and early 1960s?

Answer 1

Cuba’s internal situation was marked by a transition from an anti-dictatorial political movement to a radical social revolution, driven by the ideological inclinations of its leaders and shaped by earlier U.S. policies in Cuba and Latin America.

Question 2

How did earlier U.S. policies influence Cuban revolutionary leaders?

Answer 2

Earlier U.S. policies, such as the 1954 U.S.-supported military takeover in Guatemala and interventions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, significantly shaped the ideological predispositions of Cuban leaders, influencing their skepticism and radicalization.

Question 2

What was the impact of U.S. opposition on the Cuban population?

Answer 2

U.S. opposition to revolutionary policies radicalized much of the Cuban population and undermined the influence of pro-U.S. liberals, aligning public sentiment more closely with the revolution’s radical trajectory.

Question 2

Did U.S. policies in the late 1950s and early 1960s play a primary role in forming Cuban leaders’ mindsets?

Answer 2

No, these policies largely confirmed pre-existing beliefs among Cuban leaders rather than forming new ones, though they radicalized the broader population and diminished pro-U.S. liberal influences within the revolutionary government.

Question 3

What role did economic transformation play in U.S.-Cuban conflict?

Answer 3

Attempts at economic transformation in a U.S.-dominated economy inevitably led to conflict. Political revolutionaries faced internal and external opposition, culminating in the nationalization of foreign enterprises.

Question 4

Why didn’t Cuban revolutionary leaders retreat from their radical course despite pressures?

Answer 4

Cuban leaders’ unwillingness to retreat stemmed from ideological commitments and concerns about losing revolutionary momentum. A more reformist route risked reducing the revolutionary scope and potentially splitting leadership ranks.

Question 4

Did mass pressures from below drive the radical course of the Cuban Revolution?

Answer 4

No, mass pressures were more about rising expectations for improved living standards, not a demand for a faster or more radical revolution. Redistribution policies initially created significant political capital for the government.

Question 4

Who were some non-Communist radicals in the early revolutionary government?

Answer 4

Figures such as David Salvador, Marcelo Fernández, Faustino Pérez, Carlos Franqui, and Enrique Oltuski represented independent non-Communist radicals.

Question 4

How did splits among revolutionary leaders manifest?

Answer 4

Evidence suggests tensions existed in 1959 between Fidel Castro and more radical figures like Raúl Castro and Che Guevara, reflecting diverse ideological currents within the revolutionary government.

Question 4

What ideological factions existed in the revolutionary government?

Answer 4

The government included pro-U.S. liberals (who lost influence by late 1959), independent non-Communist radicals, and a strong pro-Communist and pro-Soviet wing led by Raúl Castro and Che Guevara.

Question 4

Why was the Cuban working class less influential during the 1950s?

Answer 4

The working class was highly organized but hindered by bureaucratic and corrupt trade unions, limiting its ability to replicate its earlier role in struggles like those against the Machado dictatorship.

Question 4

What opportunities allowed the revolutionary leadership to pursue a radical course?

Answer 4

The collapse of the Cuban army in 1959 eliminated the main support for the prerevolutionary state, creating a power vacuum that the revolutionary leaders exploited to implement radical changes.

Question 4

How did Fidel Castro’s leadership influence the revolution?

Answer 4

Castro’s leadership prevented potential military coups during Batista’s collapse and decisively shaped the revolutionary government’s radical trajectory, leveraging Cuba’s unique social and political context.

Question 5

What social context facilitated Castro’s rise?

Answer 5

Cuba’s advanced economy and diminished political power of capitalist and working classes post-1933 weakened opposition, while the fragmented armed forces and dependence on U.S. support reduced elite resistance.

Question 5

How did the 1933 Cuban Revolution weaken capitalist dominance?

Answer 5

Mutinous sergeants replaced traditional military officers, weakening ties between the armed forces and the upper class, while the capitalist class relied on U.S. political support.

Question 5

What happened to Cuba’s weak political parties, including the Ortodoxos, by the mid-to-late 1950s?

Answer 5

They fell apart, reflecting the political weaknesses of all of Cuba’s social classes.

Question 5

What happened to the Movimiento de Resistencia Civica in February 1959?

Answer 5

It dissolved itself into the 26th of July Movement, symbolizing its political subordination to Fidel Castro’s leadership.

Question 5

What role did the 26th of July Movement play in Cuban politics by the end of 1958?

Answer 5

It achieved unchallenged hegemony within the opposition to Batista, surprising even its leaders.

Question 5

How did Marxists define Bonapartism in the Cuban context?

Answer 5

Bonapartism explained how individual leaders like Fidel Castro acquired significant power due to a deadlock among social classes and the ruling classes’ inability to govern effectively.

Question 5

Name three factors that contributed to the revolutionary situation in Cuba.

Answer 5

1.A stagnant economy.

2.The frustrations of the failed 1933 revolution.

3.The neocolonial relationship with the United States.

Question 5

What did Fidel Castro and his leaders initially expect about their role in a post-Batista government?

Answer 5

They believed they would need to form a coalition government with other opposition parties, such as the Ortodoxos and Auténticos.

Question 6

How did the failures of other opposition movements contribute to Castro’s success?

Answer 6

Events such as the crushed navy rebellion in Cienfuegos and the failure of the Directorio Revolucionario’s assassination attempt on Batista weakened rival groups, allowing Castro’s movement to dominate.

Question 7

What setbacks did the 26th of July Movement face in 1956?

Answer 7

-The failed Santiago de Cuba uprising on November 30.

-The decimation of most of the 81 men who landed with Castro in December.

Question 7

Why was the establishment of Radio Rebelde in February 1958 significant?

Answer 7

It enhanced the rebels’ political attraction by truthfully reporting victories and defeats, contrasting with Batista’s propaganda.

Question 7

What role did the Sierra Maestra play in the Cuban Revolution?

Answer 7

It became the base for the 26th of July Movement’s political and military operations, enabling it to recover from defeats and expand.

Question 8

What was the outcome of the national general strike called by the 26th of July Movement in April 1958?

Answer 8

Batista’s repressive apparatus crushed the strike, but the stability of the Sierra Maestra stronghold allowed the rebels to recover.

Question 8

How did the 26th of July Movement achieve military dominance by the end of July 1958?

Answer 8

It defeated Batista’s army in 30 significant battles during the summer, forcing government troops to retreat from the Sierra Maestra.

Question 9

Who led the new guerrilla fronts established by the rebels in Oriente Province?

Answer 9

-Raúl Castro led the front in the Sierra Cristal. -Juan Almeida led the front east of Santiago de Cuba.

Question 9

How did the collapse of the Cuban army affect the revolutionary regime?

Answer 9

It removed a major source of opposition, enabling the development of a social revolution without interference from the Cuban upper classes or U.S. imperialism.

Question 10

What were the main reasons for the Cuban army’s collapse by 1959?

Answer 10

-Long-term corruption and lack of social base. -High rates of desertion and inability to combat the rebels effectively.

Question 11

How did the revolutionary leadership maintain political initiative after January 1, 1959?

Answer 11

They stayed ahead of mass sentiment, implementing radical policies while accommodating supporters and allies without losing political control.

Question 12

What critical element emerged in the development of a revolutionary process in Cuba after the collapse of the traditional army?

Answer 12

Fidel Castro’s control and political initiative became critical to the revolutionary process.

Question 13

How did Castro’s leadership address challenges from below?

Answer 13

His leadership avoided disruption from pressures or demands by maintaining strict control over revolutionary initiatives.

Question 13

What was Castro’s stance on spontaneous land distribution in February 1959?

Answer 13

Castro opposed anarchic land distribution, stating that any unauthorized land appropriation would disqualify individuals from benefits under the new agrarian reform law.

Question 14

What incident in November 1957 revealed Castro’s insistence on political control?

Answer 14

Castro repudiated the Miami Pact, criticizing omissions such as rejecting foreign intervention and demanded sole authority to nominate the future president.

Question 15

What strategic maneuver allowed Castro to manage land distribution effectively?

Answer 15

Land seizures were conducted by the Instituto Nacional de Reforma Agraria or rebel army officers in response to peasant complaints, avoiding spontaneous takeovers.

Question 16

What was Castro’s approach to the labor movement in November 1959?

Answer 16

He imposed a leadership with greater Communist representation and purged resistant labor leaders through controlled meetings and commissions.

Question 16

Why did Castro discourage the formal organization of the 26th of July Movement into a regular party?

Answer 16

To maintain personal control over political developments and avoid creating an independent political entity with its own ideology and organization.

Question 16

What happened to the 26th of July Movement organizationally?

Answer 16

It deteriorated and was eventually merged into the reconstituted Communist Party by the mid-1960s.

Question 17

Why did Castro avoid holding new labor elections in 1959?

Answer 17

To prevent unions from retaining autonomy and ensure they became tools of the government’s policies.

Question 17

How did Castro handle Soviet impatience over Anastas Mikoyan’s delayed visit?

Answer 17

He postponed Mikoyan’s visit until February 1960, partly due to apprehension about the National Catholic Congress in November 1959.

Question 18

What was the significance of the National Catholic Congress in November 1959?

Answer 18

The Congress, marked by Catholic criticism of communism, delayed Castro’s shift towards the Communist bloc.

Question 19

Which domestic groups were most affected by Castro’s consolidation of power?

Answer 19

The Cuban bourgeoisie and middle classes, due to their economic and cultural significance.

Question 19

What role did Cuban capitalists and middle-class professionals play in the 26th of July Movement?

Answer 19

Cuban capitalists contributed substantial money, while middle-class professionals and small businessmen participated financially and actively in revolutionary organizations, including the Movimiento de Resistencia Civica.

Question 19

What facilitated Castro’s defeat of domestic political opponents after coming to power?

Answer 19

The supremacy achieved by Castro and the 26th of July Movement by mid-1958.

Question 19

What role did the May 1959 agrarian reform law play in Castro’s political strategy?

Answer 19

It centralized land distribution under government control, avoiding grassroots challenges to his authority.

Question 20

What was the political situation of liberal ministers under Castro’s government?

Answer 20

Liberal ministers had no real power, which remained with Castro. They hoped to moderate radicalism but were restrained from criticizing policies like the May 1959 agrarian reform law.

Question 20

Who led the first formal government apparatus established in January 1959?

Answer 20

Former provincial judge Manuel Urrutia, with significant liberal figures among the cabinet ministers.

Question 20

What happened to Humberto Sorí Marín, the Minister of Agriculture?

Answer 20

Sorí Marín’s moderate agrarian reform act of October 1958 was ignored, and he later joined the opposition and was executed.

Question 20

What happened to the Directorio Revolucionario after Batista’s overthrow?

Answer 20

The group’s actions played into Castro’s hands. Its remnants eventually merged into the Communist Party in the mid-1960s.

Question 21

What was the effect of cabinet liberals’ inability to criticize the government?

Answer 21

They lost political influence and failed to organize the middle-class base, which lacked representation after the collapse of traditional reform parties.

Question 21

How did Castro handle opposition within his government?

Answer 21

Using "salami tactics," Castro gradually replaced or marginalized liberals, ensuring his political dominance by the end of 1959.

Question 22

What was the “microfaction dispute” of 1968?

Answer 22

A conflict where sectarian PSP members like Aníbal Escalante lost to Castro’s new Communists.

Question 22

What was the fate of the Movimiento de Resistencia Civica?

Answer 22

The middle-class-supported organization dissolved and merged into the 26th of July Movement in February 1959.

Question 23

Who were some independent radicals in the 26th of July Movement?

Answer 23

Figures like Salvador, Pérez, Oltuski, Fernández, and Franqui, who combined anti-imperialism with critiques of Communism, although they were politically dependent on Castro.

Question 23

What role did David Salvador play in the Cuban trade unions?

Answer 23

As head of the unions, Salvador fought Communists for control but remained dependent on Castro’s popularity among workers.

Question 23

How did the pro-Communist wing of the 26th of July Movement interact with Castro?

Answer 23

Led by Raúl Castro and Che Guevara, this wing remained subordinate to Fidel Castro’s dominance despite their ideological alignment.

Question 24

Why did the old Cuban Communists struggle for legitimacy?

Answer 24

Their late support for the guerrilla movement and ties to Moscow made their revolutionary credentials questionable.

Question 25

How did Castro initially manage U.S. relations?

Answer 25

By politically dissimulating anti-imperialist views, delaying U.S. hostility, and gaining recognition for his government in early 1959.

Question 25

How did U.S. oil companies react to Cuba’s demand to refine Russian oil?

Answer 25

Their reaction contrasted with the U.S. government’s initially restrained hostility toward Cuba in 1959.

Question 25

How did the U.S. government influence the Cuban revolution against Fidel Castro?

Answer 25

The U.S. government, with its strong executive wing, made Castro's divide-and-conquer tactics ineffective by opposing him, unlike the oil companies which were more willing to collaborate with the Cuban government.

Question 26

How did U.S. refugee policy after the revolution help Castro?

Answer 26

It provided a safety valve, allowing opposition members to emigrate, reducing domestic opposition.

Question 26

How did the Cuban political situation in the 1950s differ from the 1930s?

Answer 26

In the 1950s, there was no major depression or extreme poverty like in the 1930s, and the working-class consciousness was less radical. Workers were atomized, acting as individual citizens rather than as part of collective organizations.

Question 27

How did Fidel Castro's political style differ from the older PSP leaders?

Answer 27

Unlike the older PSP leaders who were compromised by their long political careers and Stalinist ideology, Fidel Castro was a clever and independent revolutionary, not bound by Soviet bloc commitments or ideological limitations.

Question 27

What was the prevailing political consciousness in Cuba before 1959?

Answer 27

Before 1959, the dominant political consciousness was not focused on class struggle or social revolution. Instead, it supported a political revolution to reestablish the 1940 constitution and abolish politiquería (political manipulation).

Question 28

What role did anti-imperialism play in Cuban political thought in the 1950s?

Answer 28

Anti-imperialism was a less significant force by the 1950s. Most Cubans criticized U.S. foreign policy, but these critiques were framed as "mistakes" rather than a systemic imperialist critique.

Question 28

How did union leadership influence the Cuban working class under Batista?

Answer 28

Under Batista, the Cuban unions became bureaucratic, corrupt, and compromised by agreements with the dictatorship, suppressing dissidence and leading to a disempowered working class.

Question 29

What were the reasons for the decline of anti-imperialism in Cuba?

Answer 29

Key factors included the abolition of the Platt Amendment in 1934, U.S. New Deal and Good Neighbor policies, post-WWII economic prosperity, and growing Cuban nationalism that aligned with the U.S. during the Cold War.

Question 30

How did Fidel Castro view the weakening of anti-imperialism in Cuba?

Answer 30

Castro noted that by 1945, anti-imperialism had become less prominent in Cuban thought, even among intellectuals, with most seeing Cuba's independence as a gift from the U.S.

Question 31

How did U.S. culture influence Cuba in the 1950s?

Answer 31

U.S. cultural influence was pervasive, particularly in urban areas and among the middle and upper classes, with widespread radio, movies, and television consumption. However, it competed with Spanish and Latin American cultural influences.

Question 31

What was the status of the Cuban economy and society in the 1950s?

Answer 31

The Cuban economy in the 1950s faced serious poverty and unemployment, largely due to the cyclical nature of the sugar industry. However, urban areas did not experience the extreme conditions seen during the 1930s depression.

Question 32

How did post-1959 Cuban nationalism differ from earlier forms of anti-imperialism?

Answer 32

Post-revolutionary Cuban nationalism became more political and less cultural, focusing on political issues like sovereignty and independence rather than on cultural expressions of anti-imperialism.

Question 33

What was the impact of Cuban modernization on its political landscape?

Answer 33

Cuba became more modernized, especially in urban areas, with improved communication, commercial television, and a cultural climate influenced by both U.S. and Latin American culture.

Question 34

What was the role of oil companies in Fidel Castro's "divide-and-conquer" strategy?

Answer 34

Oil companies cooperated with the Cuban government to some extent, enabling Castro to use divide-and-conquer tactics, though these methods were counteracted by the strong opposition from the U.S. executive wing.

Question 34

How did Fidel Castro's political approach differ from PSP leaders?

Answer 34

Unlike PSP leaders, who were constrained by Stalinist ideology and international commitments, Castro operated as a clever revolutionary unbound by such limits, allowing greater political flexibility.

Question 34

What was the general political consciousness in Cuba during the struggle against Batista (1952-1958)?

Answer 34

It focused on a political revolution to restore the 1940 constitution and abolish corruption, rather than class struggle or social revolution.

Question 34

How did unions function under Batista's regime?

Answer 34

Unions became bureaucratic and corrupt, supporting Batista in exchange for preserving collective bargaining, while suppressing dissident forces.

Question 35

What role did anti-imperialist sentiment play in Cuban politics by the 1950s?

Answer 35

Anti-imperialist sentiment had weakened, and criticism of U.S. policies was framed in terms of "errors" rather than systemic critiques of imperialism.

Question 35

What role did executions of Batistiano war criminals play in the revolution?

Answer 35

These executions signaled a break from past political cynicism and reinforced the seriousness and honesty of the new regime.

Question 36

How did U.S. cultural influence manifest in Cuba during the 1940s and 1950s?

Answer 36

U.S. culture influenced urban areas through radio, television, and movies, while competing with strong Spanish and Latin American cultural influences.

Question 36

What type of nationalism was prevalent in 1950s Cuba?

Answer 36

A cultural nationalism emphasizing pride in Cuban society and culture, devoid of specific political content.

Question 37

What was Chibasismo?

Answer 37

A political revival movement in the late 1940s emphasizing public morality, responding to corruption and failures of the 1930s revolutionaries.

Question 37

How did Fidel Castro adapt his revolutionary strategy after 1955?

Answer 37

He shifted from socially radical positions to focus on militant political revolution, aiming to achieve organizational control.

Question 38

What methods did Castro use to consolidate power post-1959?

Answer 38

He combined popular support, manipulation of that support, and repression, including the use of mass rallies, surveillance committees, and control of the media.

Question 39

How were strikes and worker demands managed under Castro?

Answer 39

Strikes were virtually eliminated, and workers were educated to prioritize revolutionary goals over immediate material demands.

Question 40

What early measures of the revolutionary government gained widespread approval?

Answer 40

Opening beaches to the public, eliminating corruption, and creating a revolutionary police force that avoided abusive behavior.

Question 40

How did Fidel Castro maintain control over Communist elements within the revolution?

Answer 40

He used the threat of blaming Communists for strikes to keep them in check, asserting his authority while addressing concerns about their influence.

Question 40

What was the significance of the drastic reduction of rents in March 1959?

Answer 40

The rent reduction by as much as 50% alienated some upper and upper-middle-class sections but solidified popular support. It marked the revolution's dedication to improving the material conditions of the working class and the poor.

Question 41

What characterized mass participation under Castro's regime?

Answer 41

While participation was widespread, it lacked democratic control, with decisions driven by the leadership rather than grassroots organizations.

Question 42

How did the May 1959 agrarian reform law impact Cuban society?

Answer 42

The agrarian reform law eliminated doubts about the revolutionary regime's commitment to redistribution and solidified its popular support by redistributing land and income.

Question 42

How did the Cuban masses experience radicalization during the early revolution?

Answer 42

Radicalization flowed from the leadership to the masses, with leaders like Fidel Castro introducing unexpected reforms, which the masses then supported after their implementation.

Question 43

What was the significance of the leadership’s method in introducing social legislation?

Answer 43

Key measures like the May 1959 agrarian reform law were announced suddenly, with little prior knowledge among the masses, creating a revolutionary fait accompli that garnered broad support.

Question 44

How did U.S. hostility to the Cuban regime escalate after 1959?

Answer 44

Hostility increased following events such as the January 1959 executions and the May 1959 agrarian reform law, leading to heightened anti-imperialist sentiment among Cubans.

Question 45

How did the Cuban government’s stance differ from that of the Bolivian Revolution’s leaders regarding U.S. relations?

Answer 45

Unlike the Bolivian leaders who sought early agreements with the U.S., Cuban leaders adopted an aggressive and combative stance toward imperial capitalism, delaying negotiations and promoting mass anti-imperialism.

Question 46

How did Fidel Castro handle U.S. diplomatic efforts in 1959?

Answer 46

Fidel Castro avoided and delayed meetings with U.S. Ambassador Philip Bonsal, signaling a lack of urgency to negotiate and demonstrating a combative attitude toward U.S. imperial capitalism.

Question 46

What was the revolutionary government’s primary method of consolidating popular support in its first year?

Answer 46

The government relied on material redistribution measures such as rent reductions and agrarian reform, which significantly benefited the working class and the poor.

Question 46

How did the Cuban leadership’s approach to radicalism influence the masses?

Answer 46

The leadership’s top-down approach introduced radical reforms that filtered to the masses, fostering support without prior grassroots agitation for these measures.

Question 47

What role did mass demonstrations play in Cuba’s revolutionary strategy?

Answer 47

Cuban leaders used massive demonstrations to escalate anti-imperialist sentiment and rally popular support, contrasting with more cautious approaches seen in other revolutions like Bolivia’s.

Question 48

What event caused some Cubans to perceive the revolution’s radicalization as the result of sinister maneuvers by Fidel Castro?

Answer 48

The sudden radicalization of the revolution, both in anti-imperialist and domestic terms, after its pre-1959 socially moderate stage.

Question 48

What external factor reinforced the rebirth of mass anti-imperialist sentiment in Cuba?

Answer 48

The actions of the U.S. power structure, which continuously proved Cuba’s subordination to U.S. imperial power.

Question 48

How might Fidel Castro have influenced mass anti-imperialist sentiment in Cuba?

Answer 48

Castro may have fabricated some accusations to exacerbate mass anti-imperialist sentiment, although this cannot fully explain the rebirth of anti-imperialism.

Question 49

Did Castro need to invent popular reactions against U.S. imperialism? Why or why not?

Answer 49

No, because the Cuban people were becoming increasingly conscious of their subordination to U.S. imperial power, which was evident through U.S. actions.

Question 49

What sentiment accompanied the deepened anti-imperialist consciousness in Cuba?

Answer 49

A growing sense of solidarity with other Latin American countries, especially those under U.S.-endorsed dictatorships such as the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua.

Question 50

How did U.S. support for corrupt dictatorships in Latin America influence Cuban sentiments?

Answer 50

It strengthened Cuban solidarity with oppressed nations in Latin America and deepened anti-imperialist consciousness.