L06 - “Conclusions” in The Russian Revolution, 1917. (2017). Flashcards
(137 cards)
1
Q
What were the concurrent revolutions during the Russian Revolution of 1917?
A
Popular revolt against the old regime; workers’ revolution against industrial and social hardships; soldiers’ revolt against military service and war; peasants’ revolution for land and autonomy; middle-class aspirations for civil rights and parliamentary system; nationalities’ revolution for self-determination; and opposition to war and its destruction.
2
Q
What characterized the Russian Revolution of 1917?
A
Overlapping revolutions, competing cultural visions, political instability, economic collapse, and ongoing world war.
3
Q
What political phases did the revolution pass through?
A
Liberal, moderate socialist, and radical socialist phases, culminating in the extreme left-wing Bolshevik rule.
4
Q
How long did the revolution last?
A
Less than a year.
4
Q
What did the February Revolution unleash?
A
Frustrations and aspirations of the population, resulting in long lists of expectations and rapid organization of new entities.
5
Q
Name some organizations formed during the February Revolution.
A
Factory committees, army committees, village assemblies, Red Guards, unions, nationality organizations, cultural clubs, women’s and youth organizations, officers’ associations, industrialists’ associations, householders’ associations, and economic cooperatives.
5
Q
What did the revolution represent for the people?
A
The opening of a new era and hopes for a better future
6
Q
What were the struggles during the revolution?
A
Competing visions and conflicting aspirations over cultural identities, women’s rights, nationalities, and political dominance.
7
Q
What were key positive and negative terms?
A
Positive: “democracy,” “freedom,” “liberty,” “republic.” Negative: “bourgeois,” “bourgeoisie,” “counter-revolutionaries,” “Kornilovite,” “dark forces,” “German agents.”
7
Q
How did language and symbols contribute to the revolution?
A
They acted as codes of communication, legitimized actions, defined enemies, upheld principles, and generated authority.
7
Q
What were the connotations of “citizen” and “comrade”?
A
“Citizen” symbolized unity and liberation, while “comrade” denoted revolutionary solidarity and marked distinctions from non-socialists.
8
Q
How did class vocabulary influence the revolution?
A
It expressed identity, united excluded groups, and framed political discourse with socialist terminology.
9
Q
How did renaming reflect revolutionary changes?
A
Streets, towns, and ships with tsarist names were renamed with revolutionary terms. Examples: “Alexander II” became “Freedom,” “Tsarevich” became “Citizen.”
9
Q
What role did sound play in the revolution?
A
Speeches, debates, slogans, and revolutionary songs were integral to public life.
10
Q
Name prominent revolutionary songs.
A
The “Marseillaise” (French and Russian versions) and “The Internationale.”
10
Q
What names did individuals adopt?
A
Revolutionary-themed names such as “Republic,” “Freedom,” “Citizen,” “Democrat.”
10
Q
What was the most prominent visual symbol of the revolution?
A
The color red, symbolized by banners, cockades, armbands, ribbons, and decorations.
11
Q
How were music and revolutionary themes incorporated into daily life?
A
Demonstrations, public meetings, theater performances, and “concert meetings” combined music and speeches.
11
Q
What happened to tsarist symbols?
A
Tsarist symbols, like the two-headed eagle, were destroyed, often in public rituals.
12
Q
What were the two largest revolutionary festivals in early 1917?
A
The March 23 burial of revolution victims in Petrograd and the April 18 “May Day” celebrations.
12
Q
How did soldiers symbolize revolutionary changes?
A
Cutting off officers’ shoulder boards and wearing uniforms askew symbolized a world turned upside down.
12
Q
What occurred during the March 23 burial at the “Field of Mars”?
A
184 people were buried with great ceremony—revolutionary, not religious—attended by leaders of the Provisional Government and Petrograd Soviet. The location was renamed “Square of the Victims of the Revolution.”
13
Q
How were festivals of freedom celebrated?
A
They featured red decorations, the Marseillaise, revolutionary songs, fervent speeches about freedom and democracy, parades, and ritualistic destruction of tsarist emblems.
14
Q
How did film themes evolve by mid-1917?
A
Films shifted to standard themes like romance, melodrama, mystery, and darker themes like suicide, violence, and pessimism.
14
What slogans were carried on banners during the festivals?
Traditional slogans like “Land and Liberty” and new ones like “Long Live a Democratic Republic.”
15
How did film themes reflect the revolution in early 1917?
Early films focused on the revolution, revolutionary movements, and negative portrayals of Nicholas and Rasputin.
16
What happened to enthusiasm for revolutionary ideals in the arts as 1917 progressed?
Enthusiasm flourished immediately after February but faded as conditions became more difficult.
17
What was the role of mass activism in 1917?
It was central to political crises and the revolution’s evolution, influencing the Duma, Provisional Government, and soviets.
18
What dilemmas did political elites face due to mass activism?
Educated elites wanted to guide and “tutor” the masses while fearing anarchism. They were caught between their democratic ideals and the need to control popular self-assertiveness.
18
How did mass activism shape political organizations?
It radicalized city councils, soviets, factory committees, and trade unions, setting the stage for the October Revolution.
18
What was the significance of the February Revolution for political elites?
It swept away the old right wing, transformed liberals into conservatives, and split socialists and nonsocialists into centrist and extreme factions.
19
Who led the center-right bloc in the first Provisional Government?
Prince G. E. Lvov, N. V. Nekrasov, and A. I. Konovalov.
19
How was the right realigned after the revolution?
The Provisional Government and Kadet Party represented liberal triumph, with divisions over war and relations with the Petrograd Soviet.
20
Who was P. N. Miliukov and what was his stance?
Leader of the Kadet Party and foreign minister, staunchly pro-war and opposed to the Petrograd Soviet’s role.
20
How was the left realigned after the revolution?
Socialist parties split into moderate socialists (led by Tsereteli) and radicals (led by Lenin), with debates over cooperation with liberals and war responses.
21
What did moderate socialists support under Tsereteli’s leadership?
“Revolutionary Defensism”—cooperation with liberals and a focus on managing revolutionary change while defending the revolution.
21
How did the masses view the revolution?
As a means to achieve specific aspirations and throw off domination by the bourgeoisie.
22
What challenges did the relationship between elites and masses present?
The masses distrusted the educated elites but relied on their knowledge and skills.
23
What are the two main branches of economics?
The two main branches are microeconomics (study of individual and business decisions) and macroeconomics (study of the economy as a whole).
23
What was a central problem for political elites in 1917?
Establishing a viable government and political system to balance popular self-assertion and elite control.
23
What is the difference between scarcity and shortage?
Scarcity refers to the limited nature of resources, while a shortage occurs when demand exceeds supply at a specific price.
23
What is economics?
Economics is the study of how people, businesses, and governments allocate scarce resources to satisfy needs and wants.
24
What is the law of demand?
The law of demand states that as the price of a good decreases, the quantity demanded increases, ceteris paribus.
25
What is the law of supply?
The law of supply states that as the price of a good increases, the quantity supplied increases, ceteris paribus.
26
What is equilibrium in the context of supply and demand?
Equilibrium is the point where the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied, resulting in a stable price.
26
What causes a shift in the demand curve?
Factors include changes in income, preferences, prices of related goods, expectations, and population.
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What causes a shift in the supply curve?
Factors include changes in production costs, technology, taxes, subsidies, and the number of suppliers.
27
What are the four main types of market structures?
Perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly, and monopoly.
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What is perfect competition?
A market structure with many buyers and sellers, identical products, and no barriers to entry.
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What is a monopoly?
A market structure where one seller controls the entire market with no close substitutes and significant barriers to entry.
30
What is an oligopoly?
A market structure dominated by a few large firms, often with significant barriers to entry and interdependent decision-making.
30
What is GDP?
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the total value of all goods and services produced within a country during a specific time period.
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What is the difference between nominal GDP and real GDP?
Nominal GDP is measured at current prices, while real GDP is adjusted for inflation.
32
What is unemployment rate?
The percentage of the labor force that is unemployed and actively seeking employment.
32
What is inflation?
Inflation is the rate at which the general level of prices for goods and services rises, reducing purchasing power.
33
What is monetary policy?
Monetary policy involves controlling the money supply and interest rates, typically managed by a country's central bank.
33
What are the main tools of monetary policy?
Open market operations, discount rate, and reserve requirements.
33
What is fiscal policy?
Fiscal policy involves government spending and taxation to influence the economy.
33
What is the Consumer Price Index (CPI)?
CPI measures the average change in prices paid by consumers for a basket of goods and services over time.
33
What is the difference between expansionary and contractionary policies?
Expansionary policies aim to stimulate economic growth, while contractionary policies aim to reduce inflation and slow down the economy.
34
What is comparative advantage?
Comparative advantage occurs when a country can produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than another country.
35
What are tariffs and quotas?
Tariffs are taxes on imports, while quotas are limits on the quantity of a good that can be imported.
35
What is the balance of trade?
The balance of trade is the difference between a country’s exports and imports of goods
35
What is foreign exchange rate?
The foreign exchange rate is the price of one currency in terms of another currency.
35
What is Keynesian economics?
Keynesian economics emphasizes the role of government spending and aggregate demand in influencing economic performance.
36
What is classical economics?
Classical economics focuses on free markets, supply and demand, and minimal government intervention.
36
What is the invisible hand?
A concept introduced by Adam Smith, it describes the self-regulating nature of the market through individuals' pursuit of self-interest.
36
What does dvoevlastie mean, and how did it manifest in 1917 Russia?
Dvoevlastie means "dual authority." It manifested as the coexistence of two political institutions: the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet, reflecting deep social-political divisions.
37
What does mnogovlastie mean, and how did it differ from dvoevlastie?
Mnogovlastie means "multiple authorities" and extended beyond dvoevlastie to describe conflicts between revolutionary organizations and established authorities, such as soldiers' committees vs. army commands and factory committees vs. factory management.
37
How did the rise of new popular organizations affect government authority?
Revolutionary organizations like Red Guards, district soviets, unions, and committees appropriated authority, ignored government orders, and hollowed out central and local government authority.
38
What political tendencies emerged after the July Days?
Conservatives demanded "order" (leading to the Kornilov Affair), while workers and soldiers chose more radical leaders.
38
What social-political chasm did dvoevlastie represent in Russia?
It represented a division between socialists vs. non-socialists, workers vs. bourgeoisie, peasants vs. landlords, and soldiers vs. officers.
38
What social problems exacerbated the sense of societal collapse?
Crime, public transportation issues, food shortages, housing problems, and other social tensions contributed to the collapse.
38
What challenges persisted after the February Revolution?
Fundamental causes of the revolution, such as social and economic problems, war stresses, and mutual exclusivity of aspirations, remained unresolved. The Provisional Government could not meet expectations.
38
What did industrial workers demand, and why were these demands unfulfilled?
Workers sought economic security, control over their lives, and improvements. However, worsening economic conditions made these demands unattainable.
38
Why did moderate socialists lose popular support?
Their opposition to Soviet power and worker, soldier, and peasant demands, coupled with coalition compromises, alienated the masses.
38
How did nationality groups contribute to the political crisis?
Major nationality groups demanded autonomy and rights, becoming increasingly assertive, which threatened state cohesion.
38
What was the peace program of Revolutionary Defensism, and why did it fail?
It sought peace through negotiations while defending the country. It failed due to opposition from allies and the unpopularity of a military offensive.
38
How did the masses view new revolutionary organizations like soviets and committees?
They saw them as legitimate political institutions that should expand their role, contrary to the Revolutionary Defensists' limited vision.
38
What did the slogan "All Power to the Soviets" signify?
It expressed belief in achieving peace and solving problems through a soviet-based government more attuned to popular needs.
38
How did the military offensive undermine Revolutionary Defensism?
The offensive’s failure alienated soldiers, who rejected the notion that it would bring peace, leading to the collapse of Revolutionary Defensism and centrist coalitions.
38
Why are the July Days called a "dress rehearsal" for the October Revolution?
They reflected demands for Soviet power and radical change but were more like February in their spontaneous popular demonstrations.
39
What political tendencies emerged after the July Days?
Conservatives demanded "order" (leading to the Kornilov Affair), while workers and soldiers chose more radical leaders.
39
How did radical left parties regain popularity after the July Days?
They aligned with popular sentiments, opposing the death penalty, advocating immediate peace, and blaming capitalists and landlords for failures.
39
What were the key failures of the Provisional Government?
Failure to satisfy popular aspirations, inability to end the war, and tarnishing their image through events like the Kornilov Affair.
39
How did the worker and soldier masses react to multiparty politics in 1917?
They became less tolerant and more supportive of radical, exclusionary politics and social policies.
40
What sweeping reforms did the Provisional Government introduce?
Civil rights and freedoms, judicial reforms, legalized trade unions, the eight-hour workday, universal elections to a Constituent Assembly, Polish independence, religious freedom, and steps toward secularization.
41
What groundbreaking reform did the Provisional Government implement for women?
Women were given the right to vote, making Russia the first major power to do so.
41
What was the dilemma faced by the Provisional Government?
Balancing sweeping changes with maintaining political and social stability, democratic institutions, and confronting the pressures of an all-consuming war.
41
Why might the Provisional Government’s reforms appear timid in hindsight?
They are measured against the more radical demands of the Bolsheviks and the Soviet government after the October Revolution.
41
What led to the loss of control for the Revolutionary Defensists over the soviets and Provisional Government?
Tarnished reputation due to the Kornilov Affair, failure in peace policy, and growing popular disillusionment with the February System.
41
Why did urban and soldier masses turn to radical left parties?
They sought leadership committed to explicitly class-based goals and fulfilling revolutionary aspirations to the exclusion of rivals.
41
What leadership style emerged in the Provisional Government by September 1917?
It became virtually Kerensky’s personal regime.
41
Which parties constituted the radical left in 1917?
Bolsheviks, Left Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs), Menshevik-Internationalists, and anarchists.
41
What was the significance of the Petrograd Soviet to the Bolsheviks?
Control of the Petrograd Soviet gave the Bolshevik-led left bloc the ability to plan for a transfer of power.
41
How did the radical left gain popularity?
By voicing popular frustrations, advocating for rapid and radical actions, and criticizing the moderation of the Provisional Government and Revolutionary Defensists.
42
What slogan unified the radical left in 1917?
“All Power to the Soviets.”
42
How did the Bolsheviks plan to take power in late 1917?
By using the Second All-Russia Congress of Soviets to declare a transfer of power from the Provisional Government.
42
What was the role of Lenin in the Bolsheviks’ decision-making?
Lenin’s more adventurous demands for action influenced the party councils, but a middle ground approach was ultimately chosen.
42
Why were moderate socialists apprehensive about a Bolshevik takeover?
They feared it would lead to a conservative counterrevolution.
42
How did other radical left parties align with the Bolsheviks’ plans?
Left SRs and Menshevik-Internationalists also believed it was time for an all-socialist government through the Congress of Soviets.
42
What did Bolshevik leaders believe workers and soldiers would defend?
They believed workers and soldiers would rally to defend the Soviet and the Congress of Soviets.
42
How did Kerensky view the possibility of a Bolshevik takeover?
He appeared anxious, foolishly confident he could crush them and end the threat.
43
What action did Kerensky take on October 24th that accelerated the revolution?
He ordered a move against Bolshevik newspapers, which provoked the armed struggle.
43
What preparations were made by Bolsheviks and their allies?
Red Guards and other activists prepared to enforce the transfer of power.
43
What was the anticipated outcome of the Congress of Soviets for the Bolsheviks?
The Congress would catapult the Bolsheviks and the radical left into governmental power, enabling them to implement their political and socio-economic projects.
43
What was the planned role of the Congress of Soviets in the transfer of power?
It was expected to vote on a transfer of power, but Kerensky’s actions forced the issue before the congress met.
44
How did postponing the Congress of Soviets from October 20 to October 25 affect the Bolsheviks?
It gave the Bolsheviks time to prepare and stage key events, such as the "Day of the Petrograd Soviet" on October 22.
44
What had occurred by the time the Congress of Soviets met on October 25th?
Power had already been effectively transferred to the Bolsheviks through worker and soldier action.
44
Who inadvertently initiated the October Revolution?
Kerensky, through his blunders, rather than Lenin, who had unsuccessfully pushed for an earlier seizure of power.
44
What were the popular aspirations tied to Soviet power?
Peace, workers’ supervision, land distribution, and national autonomy.
45
How did the Menshevik and Socialist Revolutionary (SR) walkout affect the Bolsheviks?
It gave the Bolsheviks a majority, allowing Lenin to act without significant opposition.
45
What might have happened if the transfer of power had been voted on at the Congress?
A multiparty, all-socialist Soviet government could have formed, potentially altering Russia’s future.
45
Why do some deny the Bolsheviks’ popular support in 1917?
For political reasons, including refusal to acknowledge the shift to radical support and to delegitimize later dictatorships.
46
How does later Bolshevik dictatorship affect interpretations of their 1917 support?
Popular support for Soviet power in 1917 does not legitimize the dictatorship that followed.
46
What challenge did Lenin face after the revolution?
Transforming Soviet power into Bolshevik power.
47
What major events transformed the revolution into a dictatorship?
Civil war and early Bolshevik measures to consolidate power.
48
What measures helped the Bolsheviks consolidate support initially?
The land decree, armistice, and extension of workers’ authority in factories.
49
How did Lenin and Trotsky polarize opinion after the revolution?
Through censorship, forming the Cheka, and repressing opposition like the Kadet Party.
49
How did the concept of Soviet power differ from what developed later?
Soviet power in 1917 was broadly supported but later turned into a Bolshevik dictatorship.
49
How did the coalition with the Left SRs benefit the Bolsheviks?
It provided temporary popular support and legitimacy during a difficult period.
50
How did popular aspirations shape early Bolshevik actions?
Aspirations for peace, land, and workers’ rights drove early policies but were soon overshadowed by repression.
50
What was critical to the Bolsheviks retaining power?
Lenin’s refusal to share power and his authoritarian measures.
50
What role did chance play in the October Revolution?
Unpredictable events, such as Kerensky’s actions and the moderates’ walkout, shaped the revolution’s outcome.
50
What was the Constituent Assembly’s significance in the political landscape of 1917?
It represented the supreme authority through which the people would express their will on social and political issues and was considered the goal of the political revolution.
51
Why was the Constituent Assembly seen as a challenge to Lenin's government?
Lenin viewed it as an obstacle to retaining power, as it likely would have resulted in a broad socialist coalition government.
51
What were the results of the November 1917 elections to the Constituent Assembly?
The Bolsheviks won about a quarter of the seats, while the Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs) held a majority.
52
How did Lenin’s government perceive the election outcome?
The results reinforced Lenin’s belief that the Constituent Assembly posed a threat to Bolshevik power, leading him to denigrate its importance and prepare to act against it.
53
When and how was the Constituent Assembly dissolved?
On January 6, 1918, the Constituent Assembly was forcibly closed after just one meeting.
53
Why did Lenin disperse the Constituent Assembly?
To maintain Bolshevik power and prevent the formation of a broad socialist coalition government.
53
How did the dispersal affect the Russian political landscape?
It marked the abandonment of democratic and electoral politics, signaling that the Bolsheviks would not give up power peacefully.
53
What immediate impact did the dispersal have on the Bolsheviks?
It removed a significant threat to their hold on power and confirmed their commitment to dictatorial rule.
53
How did the dispersal contribute to the onset of civil war?
By refusing to relinquish power peacefully, the Bolsheviks made civil war inevitable, forcing opponents to choose between retiring or taking up arms.
54
What broader significance did the dispersal have?
It marked the end of the democratic hopes of 1917 and set the foundation for the dictatorial political culture of the Soviet Union.
55
How did the Russian Revolution’s outcome influence the world?
The Soviet state and communism profoundly affected global history, altering the trajectory of Russia and the world toward a different historical route than a democratic regime would have.
55
What lasting impact did the Bolsheviks’ decision to abandon democracy have on Russia?
It established a legacy of authoritarian rule that still influences post-Soviet Russia’s struggles with democracy.
55
What major themes emerge from the Constituent Assembly’s dispersal?
The prioritization of power retention by the Bolsheviks, the end of democratic aspirations, and the shift toward dictatorship and civil war.
