learning theories Flashcards
(88 cards)
1
Q
what is classical conditioning
A
learning via association, when 2 stimulus are paired together (you learn to associate one stimulus with the other)
2
Q
UCS define
CC
A
something that triggers a natural reaction
e.g: the food
3
Q
UCR define
CC
A
A response, which is natural and does not need to be learnt
e.g: when the dog sees food, it starts to salivate
4
Q
NS defin
CC
A
Something that does NOT normally trigger a reaction
e.g: the bell
5
Q
CS define
CC
A
something that triggers a learnt response
e.g: the bell
6
Q
CR define
CC
A
a response that has been learnt through association
e.g: salivation
7
Q
Extinction define
CC
A
the CR is not permanent. A few presentations of the CS in absence of the UCS loses its ability to produce a CR
8
Q
Spontaneous recovery define
CC
A
following the extinction of the CS and CR, the conditioned response suddenly reappears again in similar situations
9
Q
Timing define
CC
A
of the NS cant be used to predict the UCS (time interval is too great), the conditioning does not take place
10
Q
Discriminate definition
CC
A
after a series of pairings, animals and people eventually learn to discriminate by focusing on the specific stimulus
e.g: learning the difference between a bell and a wind chime
11
Q
Pavlov’s experiment
AIM
A
to investigate associating learning and understand if a reflex response with a neutral stimulus ( a sound) produces a conditioned reflex in new situations
12
Q
Pavlov’s experiment
IV and D
methodology
A
IV: behaviour of the dog before and after classical conditioning when the dog is presented with the NS
DV: the no. of drops of saliva produced by the dog counted
methodology: repeated measures design
13
Q
Pavlov’s experiment
sample
A
35 dogs, varying breeds, raised in kennels in a lab
14
Q
Pavlov’s experiment
PROCEDURE
A
- dog placed in a sealed room with no exposure to other stimuli ( a controlled measure to prevent other situational variables from making the dog salivate)
- dog was strapped to a harness to stop it from moving and its mouth was surgically linked to a tube that drained salivation into a measuring bottle
- The sound of a bell was paired with the presentation of food which caused salivation
the PAIRED ASSOCIATION was LINKED 20 times - After the dog was conditioned, Pavlov presented the dog with the sound of the BELL but NO FOOD + the drops of saliva was counted + collected into the measuring bottle
15
Q
Pavlov’s experiment
RESULTS
A
pavlov found that the conditioned dog started to salivate 9 seconds after hearing the sound, and by 45 seconds- 11 drops of saliva were produced.
16
Q
Asses Classical Conditioning as an explanation of human behaviour
AO1
A
CC table in context of pavlovs study
UCS (food) to UCR (salivate)
UCS (food) paired with NS (bell) to UCR (salivation)
CS (bell) to CR (salivate)
key terms:
stimulus generalisation
extinction
spontaneous recovery
discrimination
strength of CC- lab exps = scientific
weakness= does NOT explain voluntary behaviour therefore not a complete explanation of human behaviour
17
Q
Asses Classical Conditioning as an explanation of human behaviour
AO3
strengths
A
APPLICATIONS AND TREATMENTS
Aversion therapy
NS= alc
UCS= antabuse
UCR= nausea
repeated!!!
Systematic desensitisation
fear taught to be associated w relaxing
SUPPORTING EVIDENCE
Watson + raynor - humans
conditioned a fear response to a 11 month old baby
18
Q
Asses Classical Conditioning as an explanation of human behaviour
AO3
weaknesses
A
DEBATES
Ethics
protections of humans and animals breached
Practical issues
low generalisability research on CC (dogs and one baby)
OTHER EXPLANATIONS
REDUCTIONIST
CC sees all behaviour is deemed from associations and it ignores that human behaviour can be inherited from genes or as a result of learning (SLT)
19
Q
OPERANT CONDITIONING
BF-Skinner
AO1
A
Voluntary behaviours which we consciously control can be learnt through understanding the CONSEQUENCES of our actions
the ABC model proposes that behaviour is based on Antecedents (a stimulus/cue) which can cause an organism to perform a particular Behaviour which has Consequences
-to CHANGE SHAPE OF BEHAVIOUR, it is easier to CHANGE THE CONSEQUENCE rather than the changing the antecedents
Antecedent
e.g: teacher turns their back
Behaviour
e.g: scrolls through instragram
Consequence
e.g: teacher gives a detention
likelihood of repetition….
20
Q
what is a REINFORCEMENT
A
PLEASANT CONSEQUENCES which make behaviours more likely to be repeated
21
Q
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
A
adds something positive
e.g a compliment
22
Q
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
A
removing something negative
e.g: stopping critisism
23
Q
what is a PRIMARY REINFORCEMENT
A
when the reward is an INNATE , BASIC need which we desire
e.g: food
24
Q
what is a SECONDARY REINFORCEMENT
A
reward is something which can SATISFY A BASIC NEED
e.g: money/tokens
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what is a PUNISHMENT
UNPLEASANT CONSEQUENCES which make the behaviour LESS likely to be repeated
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POSITIVE PUNISHMENT
introducing something unpleasant
e.g: detention
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NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT
removing something pleasant
e.g: no pocket money
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SKINNER's BOX study
AO1
PROCEDURE
1. rat was starved to 75% of usual, well-fed weight
2. rat put into skinner box where temp, light and noise was kept constant
one one wall of the box was a lever which delivered a FOOD PELLET to the rat
initially, rat is likely to wonder until it accidentally presses the lever
3.Skinner would leave the animal in the box and measure how frequently it pressed the lever over time
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SKINNER's BOX study
AO1
RESULTS
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
rat learns that pressing the lever results in pleasant consequences of food pellet so is more likely to repeat this behaviour
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
rat is exposed to an unpleasant electric current but when pressing the lever this stops
Rat learns that pressing the lever REMOVES the 'unpleasant shocks' therefore more likely to repeat this behaviour
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SKINNER's BOX study
AO1
CONCLUSIONS
the behaviour which is reinforced will be repeated
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what is CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT
the consequence (reinforcement) occurs EVERY TIME the behaviour occurs
-learning is fast, extinction is fast
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what is PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT
the consequence occurs only some of the time the behaviour occurs
learning is med, extinction is med
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schedules of reinforcement
PARTIAL-FIXED-INTERVAL
there is a FIXED time for the reinforcement
e.g: every 10 seconds
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schedules of reinforcement
PARTIAL-VARIABLE-INTERBAL
VARIABLE time for reinforcement
e.g: every 1 min, followed by 2....
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schedules of reinforcement
PARTIAL-FIXED-RATIO
no. of behaviours observed = SET number
e.g: 5 buttons pressed = 1 reward
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schedules of reinforcement
PARTIAL-VARIABLE-RATIO
no. of behaviours observed = VARIABLE number
e.g: 2 buttons pressed= reward, 5 buttons pressed= reward
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what is SHAPING BEHAVIOUR
a type of behaviour modification which uses operant conditioning in the form of rewards and punishments to form complex behaviour
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steps of SHAPING BEHAVIOUR
BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION
1. reward behaviour which is moving towards desired behaviour
2. wait for an action that is similar to the desired behaviour
3. wait for the actual desired behaviour before offering reinforcement
NASA ET AL- found that behaviour shaping was successful in supporting a child aged 11 with ADHD to concentrate on tasks
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what are TOKEN ECONOMIES?
they are vouchers/ plastic chips
-tokens are only a secondary reinforcer, when there are enough of them they can be 'cashed in' for a primary reinforcer like gifts/luxuries or privileges
-this has been successfully used in schools and prisons
MESTEL + CONCAR= found is useful to treat drug addicts for staying clean in rehab
-
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weaknesses of operant conditioning
REDUCTIONIST - SLT
NATURE VS NURTURE
operant sees behaviour as nurture and all behaviour is as a result of past actions BUT NATURE such as genes and hormones could influence behaviour!
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BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF SLT
- behaviour is learnt from experiences (nature)
- SLT assumes behaviour is learnt through observation and imitation in a social context
-this process of observational learning takes place as the individual identifies with a role model
-when we IDENTIFY ourselves with a role model and want to be like them
VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT - learning through observation of the consequences of other people's actions
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Process of SLT
Observation --> mediational processes ---> imitation
mediational processes:
ATTENTION (to enable memory coding)
RETENTION (conscious and subconscious rehearsal)
MOTOR REPRODUCTION (physcially capable)
MOTIVATION (if role model was rewarded)
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SLT SCODA
stengths
supported by Bandura's Bobo experiments (1961,1963,1965)
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SLT SCODA
credibility
SLT can be considered LESS SCIENTIFICALLY CREDIBLE than learning theories Pavlov and Skinner (CC and OC) as they focused on OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOUR whilst SLT acknowledged cognitive MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES (unempirical and hard to measure objectively)
45
SLT SCODA
other explanations
REDUCTIONIST
behaviour may be INNATE
one consistent finding in Bandura's exp was that boys were more aggressive than girls so testosterone could have an impact
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SLT SCODA
applications
SLT can be used to explain HOW PHOBIAS ARE CREATED
Dubbi et al - observed toddlers show fear and avoidance to objects their mothers had negative reactions to therefore toddlers observe and imitate this behaviour
47
BANDURA (1961)
OG
AIM
to investigate the impact of adult ROLE MODELS on children's AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR
also to investigate whether there are any GENDER DIFFERENCES
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BANDURA (1961)
OG
IV, DV
IV: observing an aggressive or non-aggressive role model
-role model is the same sex or opposite sex to child
DV: the number of verbal and physical aggressive behaviour the child imitated
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BANDURA (1961)
OG
methodology
LAB exp using a MATCHED-PAIRS design for age, gender
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BANDURA (1961)
OG
PPTS
location
72 children
3-6 years
36 boys and 36 girls
STANFORD UNIVERSOTY NURSERY SCHOOL
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BANDURA (1961)
OG
groups
1 male and 1 female role model
CONTROL GROUP: 24 children exposed to No Role Model
CONDITION 1: 24 children exposed to Aggressive Role Model
CONDITION 2: 24 children exposed to Non-Aggressive Role Model
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BANDURA (1961)
OG
PROCEDURE
STAGE 1 MODELING 10 mins
STAGE 1: modeling 10 mins
AGGRESSIVE CONDITION:
role model assembled toys for 1 min then laid down a Bobo Doll on the side, sat on and repeatedly punched its nose
Role model hit the bobo doll w a mallet and kicked it around the room.
This was repeated 3x for 10 mins with verbal aggression in between 'Hit him down', 'Kick him' 'He keeps coming back for more'
NON-AGGRESSIVE CONDITION:
role model assembled the toys in a quiet manner IGNORING the Bobo Doll
AFTER 10 MINS, THE CHILD WAS TAKEN BY THE EXPERIMENTER TO ROOM 2
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BANDURA (1961)
OG
PROCEDURE
STAGE 2 MILD AGGRESSION AROUSAL
all children were taken to a DIFFERENT experimental room, away from the main nursery school building giving them the impression they werent there
all children were told by the experimenter that they COULD NOT PLAY WITH THE TOYS as they were now 'reserved for other children'
--> this was to control the emotion in the children (frustrated)
54
BANDURA (1961)
OG
PROCEDURE
STAGE 3 TEST FOR DELAYED IMITATION + OBSERVATIONS
all children were exposed to aggressive toys (mallet, Bibi doll, guns) and non-aggressive toys (tea set) for 20 minutes and their behaviour was observed though a ONE WAY MIRROR
2 JUDGES independently rated each child on the no of:
-imitative verbal aggression
-imitative physical aggression
-aggressive gun play
-non-imitative aggression
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BANDURA (1961)
OG
RESULTS and CONCLUSIONS
1. Observing an aggressive role model increases the no. of imitated aggressive behaviours compared to observing a non-aggressive role model
-25.8 physically aggressive acts imitated from males watching male agg role model compared to non aggressive 1.5
2. BOYS were MORE AGGRESSIVE compared to girls
3. GIRLS more likely to engage in VERBAL AGGRESSION and BOYS more likely to engage in PHYSICAL AGGRESSION
4. girls
5.5 acts for female model
7.2 acts if model was male
boys
12.4 for female model
25.8 for male model
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BANDURA (1963)
FILMED ROLE MODELS REPLICATION
AIM
to investigate if children were more/less aggressive when observing
1. REAL LIFE role model
2.FILM role model
3.CARTOON role model
to investigate the hypothesis that watching role models in films is cathartic
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BANDURA (1963)
FILMED ROLE MODELS REPLICATION
IV, DV
IV:
1. real life, film, cartoon aggressive role models
2. role model is the same-sex or opposite sex to the child
DV: the no. of verbal and physical aggressive behaviour and non-imitative aggression the children displayed
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BANDURA (1963)
FILMED ROLE MODELS REPLICATION
methodology
LAB, matched pairs design for pre-tests in nursery
random allocation to the 4 conditions: real life, film, cartoon, control
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BANDURA (1963)
FILMED ROLE MODELS REPLICATION
PPTS
location
96 children
48 boys 48 girls
3-4 years
@ Stanford University Nursery School
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BANDURA (1963)
FILMED ROLE MODELS REPLICATION
PROCEDURE
STAGE 1: MODELING
the model raised the Bobo Doll + hit it with a mallet
tossed the doll up aggressively and kicked it 3x
verbal 'sock him in the nose', 'hit him down', 'throw him in the air'
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BANDURA (1963)
FILMED ROLE MODELS REPLICATION
PROCEDURE
STAGE 2: Mild Aggression Arousal
taken to a different room and told they could not play with the toys
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BANDURA (1963)
FILMED ROLE MODELS REPLICATION
PROCEDURE
STAGE 3: STAGE 3 TEST FOR DELAYED IMITATION + OBSERVATIONS
each child was taken to a TEST room to play with the toys for 20 mins
2 investigators observed
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BANDURA (1963)
FILMED ROLE MODELS REPLICATION
RESULTS
Observations of aggressive role models INCREASED aggressive behaviours displayed
There is NO significant evidence between observing LIVE, FILM, or CARTOON models
but ALL 3 express significantly higher aggressive behaviours than the control group
AGGRESSIVE ACTS
live - 83
filmed-92
cartoon-99
control--54
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BANDURA (1963)
FILMED ROLE MODELS REPLICATION
CONCLUSIONS
children will IMITATE FILMED AGGRESSION in the same way as LIVE AGGRESSION role models therefore watching filmed violence is NOT CATHARTIC, children show more aggression after watching aggressive film or cartoons
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BANDURA (1965)
VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT
AIM
to investigate if children imitate a role model they observe being REWARDED (Vicarious Reinforcement) or PUNISHED (Vicarious Punishment)
IV:
1. Role model rewarded, role model punished, role model no consequences
2. Role model is the same sex or opposite sex to the child
3. The incentive the ppts got was a POSITIVE INCENTIVE or NO INCENTIVE
DV: the no. of verbal and physical aggressive behaviours and non-imitative aggression the children displayed
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BANDURA (1965)
VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT
Methodology
LAB EXP- random allocation to 3 conditions: reward, punishment, control
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BANDURA (1965)
VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT
PPTS
location
66 children
33 boys and 33 girls
3.5-6 years
2 male role models
@Stanford University Nursery School
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BANDURA (1965)
VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT
Procedure
allocations, 1st clip
1. children random allocated to 1 out of 3 conditions (11b 11g in each)
2. children watched a 5-min TV film where an aggressive role model laid down the BOBO doll on the side, SAT on it repeatedly + PUNCHED its nose
'pow right in the nose' 'Boom Boom' 'take that'
Role model hit the Bobo Doll with a mallet 'sockeroo' 'stay down'
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BANDURA (1965)
VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT
Procedure
3 conditions
3. MODEL REWARD CONDITION
the film showed a second role model POSITIVELY rewarding Rocky with CANDY + a 7UP telling him he was a 'strong champion' with superb aggressive performance
4. MODEL - PUNISHED CONDITION
the film showed a second male SHAKE HIS FINGER at Rocky, telling him 'hey there you big bully', 'quick picking on the clown, i wont tolerate it'
5. NO CONSEQUENCES
children viewed the same film except w NO REINFORCEMENT ending
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BANDURA (1965)
VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT
Procedure
after 3 conditions
6. Each child was taken to a TEST ROOM to play with toys for 10 mins
2 investigators observed this through a 1-way mirror
TIME SAMPLED (5 seconds) observations
7. In the POSITIVE INCENTIVE GROUPS- the experimenter entered the test room with JUICE AND STICKER BOOKS + asked the child, 'show me what rocky did in the TV program', providing a positive incentive for each imitated response
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BANDURA (1965)
VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT
RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS
children are less likely to imitate role models they see as being punished
(model-punished condition, less imitation, esp in girls)
0.5
reward 1.8
no consequence 1.8
-No consequence condition shows that the behaviour does NOT need to be rewarded for it to be imitated
-when offered incentives, even children who watched punished show they had in fact learned the aggressive behaviour
- BOYS WERE MORE AGGRESSIVE THAN GIRLS IN ALL CONDITIONS
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AO1 FLOODING
flooding is based on classical conditioning and learning a new association response to a feared object
-patient is placed in a safe environment and confronted with their fear
-anxiety and distress are experienced for a prolonged period of time
1. initially, the client will EXPERIENCE FULL FEAR (sweating, heart racing)
2.the BODY CANNOT MAINTAIN this high level of arousal so the SYMPTOMS WILL SUBSIDE and they will feel RELAXED
3. a NEW ASSOCIATION OF RELAXATION IN THE PRESENCE OF THE FEARED OBJECT
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what are the two forms that flooding can take place?
1. In-Vivo (real-life exposure)
2. In-Vitro (using VR)
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AO3 OF FLOODING
strengths
WOLPE forced an adolescent girl with a fear of cars to be driven around continuously for 4 HOURS, her anxiety resulted in HOSPITALISATION BUT HER FEAR WAS EXTINGUISHED
FLOODING is COST-EFFECTIVE
it is quicker than systematic desensitisation as patients usually only require a few treatments, making it more suitable and affordable for a range of patients
-ppl with specific phobias can lose their fear after only 3 sessions
75
AO3 OF FLOODING
weaknesses
ETHICS
FLOODING IS UNETHICAL as ppts are exposed to distress and anxiety for a prolonged period of time
-right to withdraw isnt exercised BUT patients give informed consent
OTHER EXPS
not useful is ppl have phobias which have an unconscious/ cognitive cause.
FREUD explains phobias in terms of displacement, suggesting a person experiences anxiety arising from a complex situation which is hard to deal with so the individual copes with this by DISPLACING their anxiety on a similar object
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SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION
AO1
clients are exposed to their fear GRADUALLY and form NEW ASSOCIATIONS slowly
1. Functional Analysis
-the patient and therapist will sit down and discuss the NATURE of the phobias e.g: triggers
2. Relaxation (appropriate to the client)
e.g: drugs, hypnosis, breathing techniques
3. constructing an Anxiety Hierarchy
-least to most fearful sitch
4. Gradual exposure with Counter-Conditioning
(pairing relaxation with the situations described in the anxiety hierarchy)
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SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION
AO3
STRENGTHS
seen as more ETHICAL than flooding
CAPAFONS ET AL used SD based on classical conditioning to effectively treat patients with a phobia of Flying
78
SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION
AO3
WEAKNESSES
ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY
IF VR or hypnosis is used for the patients to 'imagine' the feared situation
'in-vivo' exposure therapy is typically more effective than 'in-vitro'
TIME-CONSUMING
relies on people being motivated to engage in therapy processes of creating an anxiety heirarchy as this requires effort and motivation
OTHER EXP
ppl w a social phobia not only experience an anxiety response but have UNPLEASANT THOUGHTS abt situations therefore a cognitive approach to therapy may tackle irrational thinking and be appropriate
79
CONTEMPORARY STUDY
BECKER
Aim
to investigate the impact of prolong exposure to TV on disordered eating attitudes and behaviours among media-naieve Fijian adolescent girls
80
CONTEMPORARY STUDY
BECKER
IV and DV
IV: length of time the girls were exposed to TV media (1995> 1 month) (1998 < 3 years)
DV: 26-item EAT score out of 20 indicating eating disorder and self-induced vomiting to control weight
81
CONTEMPORARY STUDY
BECKER
WHY WAS FIJI CHOSEN?
1. Low prevalence of AN
2. media-naive population, lack of exposure to TV until 1995
3. cultural norms of healthy appetites and 'full-figured women'
82
CONTEMPORARY STUDY
BECKER
ppts
1995 and 1998
matched pairs design
1995: 63 ppts, mean age 17.3, BMI 24.5
1998: 65 ppts, mean age 16.9, BMI 24.9
83
CONTEMPORARY STUDY
BECKER
Procedure
1. first experiment group was studied in 1995, involving 63 ppts who had been exposed to TV for LESS THAN 1 month
2. second experimental group was studied in 1998, involving 65 ppts who had been exposed to TV for 3 years
3.QUANTITATIVE DATA: height, BMI, EAT-26 scores collected
4. QUALITATIVE DATA: semi-structured interviews on purging and behaviour
in 1998, sample narrative data was audiotaped and transcribed by more than 1 researcher using THEMATIC ANALYSIS
5. All ppts were FLUENT in english but translater helped w unfamiliar words
84
CONTEMPORARY STUDY
BECKER
Results:
EAT-26 scores (indicating ED)
1995: 12.7%
1998: 29.2%
self report data of self-induced vomiting to control weight loss increased from 0% in 1995 to 11.3% in 1998.
in 1998 sample 77% of ppts said that TV influenced their own body image
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CONTEMPORARY STUDY
BECKER
CONCLUSIONS
TV media exposure has a NEGATIVE IMPACT on the disordered eating attitudes in Fijian Adolescent girls
Western Media imagery shows role models whose thin body types are values
-this promotes the risk of developing an ED through body dissatisfaction and internalisation of values
86
what is the learning theories key question!!!
'Is the influence of role models + celebrities something which causes eating disorders'
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KEY QUESTION
'Is the influence of role models + celebrities something which causes eating disorders'
AO1
This key q is RELEVANT TO SOCIETY today because over 1.25 million ppl live with easting disorders in the UK
An IMPLICATION FOR SOCIETY is also the devastating mortality rate, with 1 in 5 people w AN dying from SUICIDE
the ECONOMIC IMPACTS are vast with an estimated 15million pounds spent by the UK GOVERNMENT on National Health Campaigns like 'Every Mind Matters' - UK GOV 2019
POLITICALLY, the rise of eating disorders within a population can result in POLICY CHANGES e.g: leading fashion brands (gucci, dior) BANNING size 0 models in their advertisement campsigns
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