Lecture 2: Drug habits, cognitive control & neural basis

Question 1

instrumental (operant) conditioning=

Answer 1

a change in behaviour caused by a relationship between an instrumental response (R) and a motivationally relevant outcome (O). instrumental behaviour can be goal-directed or habitual.

Question 2

reinforcement vs punishment

Answer 2

reinforcement = increase in frequency of behaviour
punishment = decrease in frequency of behaviour

Question 3

positive reinforcement =

Answer 3

a rewarding stimulus

Question 4

positive punishment =

Answer 4

an aversive stimulus

Question 5

negative reinforcement =

Answer 5

the removal of an aversive stimulus

Question 6

negative punishment =

Answer 6

the removal of a desired stimulus

Question 7

habit theory of substance abuse (Everitt & Robbins)

Answer 7

the idea that aberrantly strong habits (together with impaired cognitive control) mediate the transition from goal-directed, recreational substance use towards compulsive substance abuse.

• Habituation-based system: drugs have a direct effect on the dopamine system, making them strong reinforcers of habit formation and cravings.
• Goal-directed system: chronic drug abuse has neurotoxic effects on brain function (especially the PFC), which leads to weakened goal-directed control and related cognitive control functions.

Further, it is assumed that there are differences in the tendency to form dominant habits: those with a strong tendency are more vulnerable to developing addiction or other compulsive behavior.

Question 8

incentive-sensitization vs habit theory=

Answer 8

The focus of incentive-sensitization and habit theory of substance abuse is different, in that the former focusses on a pathological motivation for drugs as the core of addiction, while the latter focusses of habits.

However, the two theories have in common that they regard behavior as context dependent.

Question 9

dual-process instrumental action=

Answer 9

with behavioural repetition, there is a shift from flexible, goal-directed control towards inflexible (efficient) habitual behaviour.

Question 10

evidence for dual-process theory=

Answer 10

The strongest evidence for the dual-process theory of instrumental action comes from neuroscience. It has been shown that there are parallel pathways (corticostriatal circuits) for goal-directed and habitual control. Research in humans has implicated the following regions (although not causally):
- Goal-directed action: ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), which partly overlaps with the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), and the caudate.
- Habit-based action: premotor cortex (PMC) and posterior putamen (located in the striatum).

Question 11

welke studies laten indirect bewijs zien voor de rol van gewoontes in verslavingen

Answer 11

studies using cue reactivity and the self-report habit index. Results show that pictures of drugs activate the striatal habit region, which could indicate the activation of a habit.

Question 12

experiment dat antwoord geeft op de vraag: Do substances have an acute effect on goal-directed action?

Answer 12

Participants were given a vodka cocktail or mocktail at the start of the outcome-devaluation study. Then trained to press a R button for chocolate, and the other for water. After training, the chocolate was devalued for everyone. Does exposure to alcohol change the outcome of your actions (en hier: is there reduced pressing for the chocolate in the alcohol group?).

Results showed:
- Placebo group: strong outcome devaluation effect (chose water over chocolate)
- Alcohol group: relatively weak outcome devaluation effect (still chose chocolate)

-> Substance use shifts the balance from goal-directed towards habitual control: it impairs goal-directed action. The ability to adjust responding based on the outcome value is diminished due to being under the influence. Getting tipsy makes you more reliant on your habits!

Question 13

experiment that answers the question: Does drug-seeking become habitual with repetition?

Answer 13

Rats were trained to respond for alcohol rewards, which were devalued later by satiation. Just before testing, half of them were injected with GABA-agonist muscimol in either the dorsomedial striatum (DMS; involved in goal-directed action) or the dorsolateral striatum (DLS; involved in habits), temporary inactivating this area. Results showed:
- Short-term: while normally there is goal-directed behavior (less responding to devalued reward), DMS inactivation led to equal responding to both the devalued and non-devalued outcome, representing a habit-based pattern (lack of goal-directed control due to inactivation of the DMS).
- Long-term: while there normally is habit-based behavior (equal responding to both rewards), inactivation of the DLS led to less responding to the devalued outcome, representing a goaldirected pattern (lack of habitual-control due to inactivation of the DLS).

-> Over time, there is a transition from goal-directed alcohol-seeking to a habit that is insensitive to devaluation (in other words, when liking is gone, drug-seeking can still continue habitually).

Question 14

definitie pavlovian/classical conditioning=

Answer 14

a change in behaviour due to experience with a relationship between a (neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) and a (motivationally relevant) unconditioned stimulus (US)

Question 15

wat is de drug in pavlovian

Answer 15

US = drug
CS = drug-related cues

Question 16

instrumental conditioning=

Answer 16

a change in behaviour caused by a relationship between an instrumental response (R) and a motivationally relevant outcome (O)

Question 17

hoe kan je het effect van drugs uitleggen aan de hand van instrumental/operant conditioning

Answer 17

• working for the rewarding effects of drugs = positive reinforcement (reward)
• avoiding withdrawal symptoms or escaping from negative feelings = negative reinforcement (avoidance, escape)

Question 18

goal-directed action =(two criteria)

Answer 18

• the cognitive belief criterion: performance is mediated by a representation of the causal relationship between the action and its outcome
• the motivational desire criterion: performance is mediated by a representation of the current goal or incentive value of the outcome

Question 19

verschillende soorten drug use en daarbij de action

Answer 19

• recreational drug or alcohol seeking: goal-directed action
• substance use disorder: habituation-based action

Question 20

habit =

Answer 20

instrumental responses that are triggered by stimuli, and that do not depend on the current motivation for the outcome of the behavior.

Question 21

law of effect =

Answer 21

Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation.

Question 22

habits are behaviourally autonomous =

Answer 22

the behaviour is under external stimulus control (stimulus dependent) and takes place independently of the current desirability of the behavioural outcome (goal independent)

je denkt eigenlijk niet meer na over de doelen die je er mee kan bereiken, maar de stimulus alleen is genoeg om het gedrag van een gewoonte aan te zetten. je hoeft het niet meer te verantwoorden,of er een reden voor te hebben, het is gewoon een gegeven dat je het gaat doen

Question 23

“slips of action” suggest absent minded drug use

Answer 23

oke

Question 24

slips of actions =

Answer 24

oops i did it again, bijvoorbeeld naar huis gaan terwijl je nog langs de winkel wilde gaan

slips of action = characterized as failures to execute one’s intention arising in habitual or highly learned action sequence.

Question 25

can habits also drive compulsive drug seeking? wie zijn voor en tegen?

Answer 25

Berridge & Robinson: NO! -> incentive-sensitization theory (a pathological motivation for drugs and impaired cognitive control is the core problem in addiction).

Everitt & Robins: YES! -> habit account (aberrantly strong habits and impaired cognitive control mediate the transition from goal-directed, recreational substance use towards compulsive substance use)

Question 26

biologisch argument voor goal-directed en voor habit theory

Answer 26

goal directed: chronic drug abuse has neurotxic effects on the prefrontal cortex, this could lead to decreased goal-directed control and is related to cognitive control functions

habit: due to their effects on the dopamine system, drugs are strong reinforcers of habit formation

Question 27

hoe gaat de pathway van drug use naar addiction in het brein volgens Everett & Robbins: habit theory of substance abuse

Answer 27

1. initial drug use: craving and goal-directed drug seeking.
   = PFC & mesolimbic dopamine pathway
2. drug habits.
   = nigrostriatal dopamine pathway (substantia nigra -> posterior putamen)
3. addiction: compulsive behaviour
   = PFC dysfunction

Question 28

3 dopamine pathways=

Answer 28

1. mesolimbic (VTA -> NAcc)
2. nigrostriatal (SN -> posterior putamen)
3. mesocortical (VTA -> PFC)

Question 29

Which theory can account for the lower relapse rates in
Vietnam soldiers compared to relapse in individuals
returning from a drug rehab center where they were
treated for heroin use?
A.Incentive-sensitization theory
B.Habit theory
C.Both
D.Neither

Answer 29

C

omdat in beide theorieen de drug-associated cues belangrijk zijn. for the soldiers, their home environment was not yet associated with the drug US or seeking response

Question 30

When people return from a rehabilitation center to the home environment in which they used to take drugs, drug craving and seeking can be triggered again by cues in the home environment.

hoe leg je dit uit via habit account en incentive sensitization account?

Answer 30

habit account: stimulus van thuis leidt via drug reward tot de response drug seeking (law of effect -> stimulus (home) -> reward -> response

incentive sensitization account: due to neural sensitization, drug associated cues elicit aberrantly strong ‘wanting’.
CS -> US

zie schrift

Question 31

applicability of outcome devaluation paradigm

Answer 31

Under the associative dual-process model the outcome devaluation paradigm has been used extensively to classify behaviours as being either goal-directed (sensitive to shifts in the value of associated outcomes) or habitual (triggered by stimuli without anticipation of consequences).

Hier maak je de uitkomst dus minder goed, waardoor je kan kijken of bepaald gedrag habit of goal-directed is.

Question 32

uitkomst van outcome devaluation paradigm

Answer 32

moderate training: meer lever presses bij valuable dan bij devaluable outcome.

excessive training: evenveel lever presses bij beiden. dus geen groot verschil meer, rats start to peseverate on the learned response. here the stimulus-response relation drives the behaviour, this is not longer goal directed.

Question 33

3 stappen van outcome devaluation paradigm

Answer 33

1. instrumental learning phase (lever = food)
2. outcome devaluation,for example by saturation (heel veel van geven) or pairing with LiCL-induced nausea
3. extinction test

Question 34

What is the primary reason for conducting the outcome- devaluation test in extinction?
A.To prevent food waste.
B. Otherwise the rats will press so much that they become
tired.
C. To prevent learning based on the new outcome value.
D. Otherwise rats will become satiated

Answer 34

C: we want to see whether they are able to immediatly and flexibly adjust behaviour, with the abstence of further feedback (dus extinction test is very brief ook, en gelijk daarna testen)

Question 35

the strength of the stimulus response relation is not fixed: it will adapt to the rewarding value of the outcome. if you have devalued the outcome, and then in the test phase you would still reinforce responding, then even the law of effect of habitual behaviour would say that rats would gradually learn to stop making the lever response. however, the difference is that goal directed behaviour can immediately and flexibly be adjusted. with habits you cannot do that, you need to gradually have new experiences and adjust the rate.

Answer 35

oke

Question 36

als iemand al eens verslaafd is geweest, is het risico om een andere verslaving te ontwikkelen groter

Answer 36

oke

Question 37

dus conclusie van outcome devaluation paradigm

Answer 37

• overtraining leads to insensitivity to outcome devaluation or behavioural autonomy
• insensitivity to outcome devaluation due to overtraining is context-specific
• context stability is important: the behaviour needs to be performed in the same context for that S-R to build up. going into a new environment should break that habit! dus als ratten in een andere chamber komen zal dit het breken. (belangrijk!!!)

Question 38

je had die outcome devaluation paradigm ook bij mensen

Answer 38

smarties en fritos, R1 -> smarties, R2 -> fritos. toen in phase 2 devaluation by satiation (dus heel veel van een van de twee gaan eten), 3 extinction test.

moderate training: meer valuable than devalued
extensive training: gelijk

Question 39

dual process model=

Answer 39

With behavioral repetition, there is a shift from flexible, goaldirected control (system 2) towards inflexible (efficient) habitual behavior (system 1)

Question 40

neurobiological studies provide evidence for the dual process model

Answer 40

oke

Question 41

dual process model waar aan denken

Answer 41

thinking fast and slow

Question 42

most of the evidence in humans is…

Answer 42

correlational, from fmri studies

Question 43

computer tasks humans: investigate goal directed behaviour

Answer 43

participants were pressing for tomato juice and chocolate milk, then one of the two was randomly extincted. and then their choice was evaluated afterwards.

choices for the valued outcome were associated with activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. (vmPFC) -> strongly associated with goal directed control over behaviour (basing your actions on their current desirability).

another study also saw that with extensive training: increase in posterior putamen (associated with habitual behaviour).

Question 44

nucleus accumbens is important for…

Answer 44

craving

Question 45

dus welke gebieden voor goal directed en welke gebieden voor habits

Answer 45

• goal directed: ventromedial prefrontal cortex & caudate
• habits: premotor cortex and posterior putamen

dus dit support the dual process theory

Question 46

Animal research provides the strongest support for dual theory:

Answer 46

– Causal evidence (as opposed to correlational)
– More animal studies than human studies
– Findings more consistent
– The overtraining paradigm can be used to study the transition from goal-directed towards habitual behavior in animals. The human paradigm fails to reliably induce overtraining (see Tricomi for exception; but for failed attempts: de Wit et al., 2018).

Question 47

Who are the authors of the habit theory of addiction?
A. Everitt & Robbins
B. Leshner & Volkow
C. Berridge & Robinson
D. Wiers & Field

Answer 47

A

Question 48

dus welke mannen hebben wat geschreven

Answer 48

incentive-sensitization theory = Berridge & Robinson
habit theory = Everitt & Robbins

Question 49

Which subcortical brain region has been most strongly implicated in goal-directed action?
A. (Posterior) putamen
B. Ventromedial prefrontal cortex
C. Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
D. Caudate

Answer 49

D (want vmPFC is niet subcortical)

Question 50

What paradigm can be used to determine whether drug seeking is habitual or goal-directed?
A. Progressive ratio paradigm
B. Pavlovian conditioned approach paradigm
C. Outcome-devaluation paradigm
D. Reinstatement paradigm

Answer 50

C

Question 51

there are 2 circuits for goal-directed behaviour: cortical components (vmPFC) and subcortical striatal components (caudate)

Answer 51

oke

Question 52

indirected evidence for that drug seeking is habitual

Answer 52

1. cue reactivity paradigms: when people are passively exposed to cues that have a certain motivational value to them, and then you measure their responses (bv brain activity).

fMRI studies show that pictures of drugs/alcohol activate the striatal habit region. this could indicate the activation of a habits. (But it is indirect because behaviour is not measured -> gaat alleen om pictures)

When cocaine-addicted subjects are shown a video with cocaine cues during PET scanning, this leads to dopamine activity in the striatal habit region.

2. self-report: self-report habit index -> ask a number of questions about controllability and automaticity. these SRHI scores did predict the behavioural frequency of using each substance

Question 53

welk deel van de striatum is voor wat

Answer 53

dorsomedial striatum DSM: involved in goal-directed action

dorsolateral striatum DLS: involved in habits

Question 54

There may be a transition from goaldirected alcohol-seeking behavior to a habit that is insensitive to devaluation.

Answer 54

oke

Question 55

accelerated habit formation with alcohol and drugs: onderzoeksparadigma

Answer 55

ratten kregen training met placebo en alcohol, daarna devaluation with LiCi wat leidde tot nausea. daarna extinction test.
Devaluation of the food pellets reduced (e.g., left) lever pressing more than devaluation of alcohol (e.g., right) lever pressing.

This supports the idea that habit formation is accelerated with an alcohol reward. This accelerated habit formation was also found for cocaine.

Question 56

dopaminergic law of effect: because drugs evoke such a strong dopamine response, this stimulus response reinforcement is much stronger than natural reinforcers.

Answer 56

oke

Question 57

Does substance abuse lead to a general tendency to rely on rigid habits? -> onderzoeksparadigm

Answer 57

slips of action task/fabulous fruit game: Participants learn the correct response (right or left) for 6 different discriminative cues (pictures of fruit) to earn 6 different rewarding outcomes (pictures of fruit that were worth points).

daarna slips of action: devaluation of certain outcomes. daarna go en no go trials -> then decide whether they will make the learned responses or not for the devalued outcomes. als het goal directed behaviour is, zouden mensen hun gedrag moeten kunnen controleren. als het een habits zijn, klikken mensen dus nog steeds op de devalued outcome. slips of action indicative of habits.

mensen met abuse show diminshed outcome devaluation effects, met meer slips of action.

-> habit tendency could be due to strong habit formation, weak goal-directed behaviour of a combination.

Question 58

but is this strong habit formation in addicts a cause or a consequence? study

Answer 58

Corbit, Nie & Janak found that chronic alcohol exposure led to a general habit
tendency in animals.
* Group Sugar: pressed for sugar for 2 weeks
* Group Sugar+: pressed for sugar for 8 weeks
* Group Sugar+ and Alcohol: pressed for sugar for 8 weeks + received noncontingent alcohol (noncontingent = without pressing)

the last group had equal responses for the devalued and valued outcomes

Question 59

wat zie je in de graphs van devalued en non devalued

Answer 59

habit formation = gelijke grafiek
goal directed = wel een significant verschil tussen devalued en non devalued

Question 60

Are drug habits compulsive? -> onderzoeksparadigma

Answer 60

rats were trained to self-administer cocaine, later sometimes the press for cocaine would lead to an electric shock. after moderate training, punishment suppressed drug seeking. but after extensive training, a subgroup of rats continued to work for cocaine even when they received electric shock (80% stopped with drug seeking, 20% continued)

Question 61

hoe komt die compulsivity overeen met mensen

Answer 61

As in humans, this addiction-like behavior was present only in a small proportion of subjects using cocaine (~20%) and was predictive of relapse (or reinstatement) after withdrawal. In conclusion, animal research provides support for the idea that habits play a role in the transition from goal-directed towards compulsive drug seeking.

Question 62

dus conclusie

Answer 62

• Drugs / alcohol have an acute effect on goal-directed action.
• Drug seeking becomes habitual with repetition.
• Habit formation is accelerated for drug rewards relative to natural rewards.
• Substance abuse leads to a general tendency to fall back on rigid habits.
• Drug habits can be compulsive.

Question 63

wat is er met stress

Answer 63

acute and chronic stress causes a shift from goal directed to habitual control. this stress increases the reliance on habits. stress is an important factor in addiction and relapse

Question 64

cognitive dissonance

Answer 64

Alcohol/substance abuse can give rise to cognitive dissonance. This is experienced as an unpleasant tension due to conflict between one’s beliefs and conflicting behavior. Cognitive dissonance can lead to post-hoc rationalizing of one’s behavior.

Question 65

Critical notes animal models

Answer 65

1. Most animal studies in the field of addiction are conducted in a highly impoverished context in which only drug reward is available.
   – Ahmed and colleagues have shown that rats extensively trained to selfadminister cocaine readily forego the drug if offered a sweet solution as an alternative (Lenoir et al., 2013). This was later also shown to be the case for
   other drugs and alcohol.
   – Furthermore, lack of social play early in life in animals increases the motivation to take addictive substances in adulthood (Vanderschuren, Achterberg & Trezza, 2016). And the opportunity to interact with a fellow rat is protective against addiction-like behaviors (Benniro et al., 2018).
2. Animal models fail to capture the unique capacity for language and long-term goals in humans. “The capacity for language in humans is critical during treatment and efforts to reduce or abstain from drug use. Efforts to abstain depend on knowledge and understanding about long-term and usually probabilistic consequences of drug use, which are extremely difficult to model in laboratory animals.”

Question 66

why do individuals with a drug addiction continue to use drugs or alcohol despite being aware of the disastrous consequences?

Answer 66

• Aberrantly strong craving (and incentive sensitization)
• Aberrantly strong habits
• Impaired cognitive control

Question 67

welke soorten conditioning horen bij welk account

Answer 67

habit theory = instrumental conditioning
incentive sensitization = pavlovian conditioning