Lecture 8 - Reason Decision Making

Question 1

What is reasoning?

Answer 1

The action of thinking about something in a logical (or rational) way to make a decision

It involves using existing knowledge to draw conclusions, make predictions, or construct explanations.

Question 2

What is inductive reasoning?

Answer 2

Making broad generalisations from specific observations

It is not certain because future observations may not confirm the generalisation.

Question 3

What is deductive reasoning?

Answer 3

Reaching a specific, logical conclusion from general statements or hypotheses.

Question 4

How is deductive reasoning typically structured?

Answer 4

• First premise (P1)
• Second premise (P2)
• Inference (or conclusion)

Question 5

What is the goal of deductive reasoning?

Answer 5

To solve the reasoning task, although the solution isn’t always obvious.

Question 6

Provide an example of deductive reasoning.

Answer 6

If Jude is taller than Jared (P1) and Jared is taller than Jesse (P2), then Jude is taller than Jesse (conclusion).

Question 7

What are the two types of deductive reasoning?

Answer 7

• Conditional
• Syllogistic

Question 8

What is conditional reasoning?

Answer 8

Reasoning with premises that include logical operators such as ‘if’, ‘or’, ‘and’.

Question 9

What is an example of modus ponens?

Answer 9

If the weather is nice, David takes a walk. The weather is nice. Therefore, David takes a walk.

Question 10

What is modus tollens?

Answer 10

If the weather is nice, David takes a walk. David does not take a walk. Therefore, the weather is not nice.

Question 11

What is the conclusion validity of modus ponens and modus tollens?

Answer 11

Both conclusions are valid.

Question 12

What is the affirmation of the consequent?

Answer 12

If David is angry (antecedent), then Eden is upset (consequent). Eden is upset. Therefore, David is angry.

Question 13

Is the affirmation of the consequent valid or invalid?

Answer 13

INVALID

This argument commits the fallacy of affirming the consequent.

Question 14

What is the denial of the antecedent?

Answer 14

If David is angry (antecedent), then Eden is upset (consequent). David is not angry. Therefore, Eden is not upset.

Question 15

Is the denial of the antecedent valid or invalid?

Answer 15

INVALID

This argument commits the fallacy of denying the antecedent.

Question 16

What are the four types of conditional reasoning problems?

Answer 16

• Modus ponens
• Modus tollens
• Affirmation of the consequent
• Denial of the antecedent

Question 17

What is the difference between deductive reasoning and informal reasoning?

Answer 17

Deductive reasoning is uninterested reasoning, while informal reasoning involves personal goals and prior knowledge.

Question 18

What are the two influential theories of deductive reasoning?

Answer 18

• Mental model
• Dual-systems

Question 19

What is a mental model in reasoning?

Answer 19

Creating a visual image of the problem to determine validity.

Question 20

What is a limitation of mental models?

Answer 20

It does not describe how we decide which information to include in the mental model.

Question 21

What does dual-systems theory entail?

Answer 21

• Heuristic process
• Analytical process

Question 22

What is informal reasoning?

Answer 22

The process of everyday reasoning, based on knowledge and experience, contrasting with formal logic.

Question 23

What factors influence perceived strength of a conclusion in informal reasoning?

Answer 23

• Degree of previous conviction or belief
• Positive arguments have more impact than negative arguments
• Strength of the evidence

Question 24

What is belief bias?

Answer 24

Accepting invalid conclusions if they are believable and rejecting valid conclusions if they are unbelievable.

Question 25

What strategies are used to evaluate conclusions in reasoning?

Answer 25

* Statistical strategy * Counterexample strategy

Question 26

What is the impact of prior knowledge on reasoning?

Answer 26

It affects the acceptance of conclusions based on their perceived probability.

Question 27

What is the role of motivation in informal reasoning?

Answer 27

It influences how we support our viewpoints.

Question 28

What is considered more 'scientific' in the context of psychological processes?

Answer 28

Neuroscientific findings ## Footnote Neuroscientific findings are often viewed as more credible due to the use of complex and expensive equipment.

Question 29

What should be evaluated as carefully as psychological evidence?

Answer 29

Neuroscientific evidence ## Footnote This emphasizes the need for critical scrutiny of neuroscientific findings.

Question 30

What are the three factors that influence the perceived strength of a conclusion?

Answer 30

* Degree of previous conviction or belief * Positive arguments have more impact than negative arguments * Strength of the evidence

Question 31

Fill in the blank: 'Well, I __________ that it is effective.'

Answer 31

think

Question 32

Fill in the blank: 'It _________ effective.'

Answer 32

is

Question 33

Fill in the blank: 'Because I know of __________ trials showing that it was effective.'

Answer 33

clinical

Question 34

What can distort our judgments according to personal goals or beliefs?

Answer 34

Motivation ## Footnote Motivated reasoning can lead individuals to favor information that supports their beliefs.

Question 35

What is myside bias?

Answer 35

Tendency to evaluate statements with respect to our beliefs rather than on merit ## Footnote This bias affects how we interpret information.

Question 36

Which group was least likely to remember that the previous summer had been warmer than usual?

Answer 36

Those most dismissive of global warming ## Footnote This was demonstrated in research by Howe & Leiserowitz (2007).

Question 37

What distinguishes informal reasoning from deductive reasoning?

Answer 37

Informal reasoning is based on knowledge and experience rather than formal logic.

Question 38

What is the importance of content and context in informal reasoning?

Answer 38

* Content = plausibility * Context = expert vs. non-expert

Question 39

What does rational thought involve according to the final thoughts on human rationality?

Answer 39

Use of probabilities rather than logic ## Footnote This suggests that humans can be rational in uncertain situations.

Question 40

True or False: Human reasoning is always adequate when tested in the laboratory.

Answer 40

False

Question 41

What is the conclusion about human rationality based on deductive reasoning research?

Answer 41

Humans cope with problems in everyday life despite inadequacies in laboratory settings.