Lecture Exam 1 Flashcards
(222 cards)
1
Q
What two substances are required for a myosin to contract?
A
- ATP
- Ca2+
2
Q
What is syncytia?
A
combining of muscle cells to become multinucleated
3
Q
What are immunoglobulins
A
Antibodies, largest fraction
4
Q
What are the granulocytes (NEB) and what are the agranulocytes (ML)?
A
Granulocytes: Nuetrophils, eosinophils, basophils (multilobed nuclei)
Agranulocytes: Monocytes, Lymphocytes (unlobed nuclei)
5
Q
Diff between extrinsic and intrinsic coagulation pathways.
A
Extrinsic: FASTER, release of tissue thromboplastin
Intrinsic: SLOWER, exposure of collagen
Extrinsic just has fewer steps
6
Q
Where is desmin located?
A
muscle cells
7
Q
Basophils turn into what in tissues?
A
Mast Cells
8
Q
Adipocytes are derived from what?
A
Lipoblasts
9
Q
What three cell junctions form intercalated discs?
A
- Desmosomes
- Fascia aherens
- Gap junctions
10
Q
Relationship between axon diameter and speed of signal?
A
Larger axon = faster signal
11
Q
Name for active DNA in the process of transcription
A
Euchromatin (lightly staining)
12
Q
Primary function of neutrophils?
A
phagocytosis
13
Q
How to eosinophils function?
A
- modulate infalmmatory response
- release granules in response to helminthic parasites
- release other cytokines and signalling molecules
14
Q
What do 2’ (specific granules) granules contain?
A
Lysozyme and alkaline phosphatases (variable staining)
15
Q
Condition with large amounts of erythrocyte precursors in circulation
A
Megaloblastic anemia
16
Q
What are the two subunits of ribosomes?
A
40s and 60s
17
Q
What three glycoproteins are present in the basement membrane?
A
Laminin, enactin, tenascin (sounds like athlete’s foot products)
18
Q
Is epithelia vascular or avascular?
A
Avascular!
**never penetrated by blood vessels
19
Q
Names for the cytoplasm, rER, and plasma membrane in a neuron?
A
- Cytoplasma: perikaryon
- rER: nissl substance
- Membrane: neurilemma
20
Q
What organelle is the principle organelle involved in detox and conjunction of drugs and toxins.
A
sER
21
Q
What is a graded response? Mm
A
Refers to # of muscel fibers contracting at a given moment
22
Q
What is H&E staining? What does each stain bind to?
A
H= hematoxylin, blue, basic dye that stains acids E= eosin, red/pink, acidic dye that stains bases
23
Q
What are the functions of the cerebellum?
A
Coordinate muscular activity, posture, and equilibrium
24
Q
What are the three plasma proteins?
A
- Albumins: trans insoluble molecules
- Globulins: trans lipids and heavy metal ions, immunoglobulins
- Fibrinogens: synth soluble fibrin that is turned to fibrinogen for clotting
25
What is a plasmalemma
semi-permeable cell membrane of animal cells
26
What is karyotyping?
sorting of chromosome pairs according to size and shape
27
Vit B12 and B9 deficiency cause an increase in what cells?
Macrocytes
28
Where does hemopoiesis occur during fetal development vs in adulthood?
Fetus: 1st tri-blood islands in wall of yolk sac, 2nd tri-liver and lymphatic tissue, last month in bone marrow
Adulthood: vascular sinuses of bone marrow, skull, ribs, sternum, vert, pelvis, some long bones
29
What plasma protein functions as transporter of insoluble metabolites?
albumins
30
An overall reduction in leukocytes could mean what?
defective function of bone marrow
31
What is the nuclear lamina?
network of filaments that provide nuclear support
32
What are the three neuronal support cells and where are they located?
- Neuroglia: CNS
- Schwann Cells: PNS
- Satellite Cells: Ganglia
33
Where are ribosomes synthesized vs where are they found after synthesis?
Ribosomes are synthesized in the nucleus. Found free in cytoplasm adn attached to rER and outer nuclear membrane.
34
How are neuromuscular spindles and neurotendinous spindles different?
Neuromuscular: in belly of muscle, sense changes in length
Neurotendinous: (golgi tendon organs) within tendon, sensitive to tension
They are both intrafusal fibers
35
9 Steps of Tissue Prep
1. Place cut tissue in cassette
2. Dehydrate with alcohol baths and xylene
3. Embed in liquid paraffin or plastic resin
4. Microtoming (6-7 micrometers)
5. Mount on slides
6. Remove paraffin
7. Rehydrate with alcohol and xylene
8. Stain (H&E most common)
9. Coverslip
36
How can keratin help with tumor id?
Different epithelia produce different keratin. 54 kinds in humans
37
"Lamp Brush Chromosomes" are made up of what?
Euchromatin
38
What is the glycocalyx? What does it do?
Group of glycoproteins and glycolipids on outside of cell. Protects surface of cell membrane, cell recognition
39
How wide is a RBC?
6-8 micrometers
40
Type 4 Collagen
- where is it found
- does NOT form what?
- found in basement membrane
| - does NOT form fibers
41
What method is used to determine the presence of tumor/metastasis?
Elevated mitotic index. Determins relative level of mitosis of cells in a tissue.
42
Marfan's Syndrome is caused by what?
autosomal dominant condition results in abnormal elastic fibers
43
What cell is responsible for minimizing "friendly fire"?
T-Cells (defects in T-Cell formation thought to be cause of autoimmune diseases)
44
What are the steps of mitosis?
PMAT
- Prophase: chromosomes condense and connect w/ kinetochore, centrioles go to ends of cell w/ interpolar microtubules between them, nuclear membrane disappears
- (Prometaphase): mitotic spindles attach to chromosomes at kinetochore
- Metaphase: chrom line up at metaphase plate
- Anaphase: centromeres split and chrom migrate
- Telophase: mitotic spindle disaggregates, nuc envelope and nucleoli reappear, cleavage furrow, cytokinesis
45
What are common sites of marrow aspiration/biopsy?
sternum, iliac crest, tibia (in children)
46
What are the largest neuroglial cells?
Astrocytes
47
Philia and osis vs penia?
Philia and osis: increase (usually due to infection)
| Penia: decrease (immune suppression/tumor)
48
What are the three cells that make up connective tissue?
- Fibroblasts: most common, spindle shaped, myrofibroblasts (fibroblasts with contractile ability)
- Retifular cells: fibroblast in lymph nodes and bone marrow, synth reticular fibers
- Adipocytes: fat cells
49
What is in the buffy coat?
WBCs and platelets
50
Describe mitotic spindles
- formed during mitosis
| - control distribution of chromosomes in daughter cells
51
What are common sites of marrow aspiration/biopsy?
sternum, iliac crest, tibia (in children)
52
What are the two types of lymphocytes?
B-cells
| T-cells
53
Diff between single and multi unit smooth Mm contraction?
Single: (tonic) fibers contract as unit, visceral sm mm of gut
Multi: (phasic) individual fibers contract independently
54
What causes trisomies?
-Failure of homologous chromosome pairs to separate in first meiotic division
OR
-Failure of sister chromatids to separate during 2nd meiotic division (anaphase lag)
55
The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with what?
The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the rER and is studded with ribosomes
56
What keeps microtubules from spontaneously dissassembling?
capping proteins
57
Mitochondria are present in all cells EXCEPT?
Mitochondria are NOT found in RBCs and keratinocytes
58
What kind of connective tissue is found in ligaments, tendons, and aponeuroses?
Dense regular connective tissue
59
What happens to satellite cells following muscle injury?
Differentiate into myoblasts
60
Names for the cytoplasm, rER, and plasma membrane in a neuron?
- Cytoplasma: perikaryon
- rER: nissl substance
- Membrane: neurilemma
61
What organelle functions in post translational modification and sorting of proteins?
Golgi Apparatus
62
Tay-Sachs, Gaucher's disease, are both examples of what? Explain what causes it.
- Lysosomal storage diseases.
| - congenital disorder, mutation in gene for lysosomal enzyme, substrates build up in cells
63
Name the intermediate filaments
- cytokeratin
- vimentin
- desmin
- neurofilament proteins
- GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein)
- lamin
64
In Eukaryotes, the nucleus contains the what? And it makes up what percentage of the nuclear mass?
- The genome
| - DNA of the genome makes up <20% of nuclear mass
65
Raised neutrophil count means what?
ACUTE inflammatory response (ie bacterial infections)
66
What is clonal deletion?
removal of T-cells that react to "self" molecules in thymus
67
Cytochromes are ________ on the inner membrane of ______?
Cytochromes are ENZYMES on the inner membrane of CRISTAE.
68
Where is cytokeratin located?
epidermis of skin
69
Three functions of epithelium
- cover body surfaces
- lines cavities
- forms glands
70
How do mature RBCs produce ATP?
Anaerobic glycolysis
71
Where is endocardium thicker and why?
Thicker in atria b/c of greater turbulence
72
What space separates the inner and outer layer of the nuclear envelope?
Nuclear cisterna
73
How do neutrophils function?
- attracted by chemotactic factors to damaged tissue
- coat organisms with antibodies
- phagocytosis (respiratory burst)
74
Extrinsic coagulation pathway is initiated by what?
Initiated by thromboplastin
75
Connective tissue is derived from what germ layer?
Mesodermal mesenchyme
76
What tissue is lamin found in?
forms layer on inside of nuclear membrane
77
Loose aereolar connective tissue is normally located in what three locations?
- beneath epithelia
- around Nn
- around vessels
78
Monocytes turn into what when they enter tissue?
Macrophages
79
An overall rise in leukocytes could mean what?
malignant tumor in bone marrow
80
What does terminally differentiated mean? What are facultative dividers?
TD: cells lose capacity to divide
FD: retain capacity for division with proper stimulus
81
What is actin made of?
G-actin, polymerizes to form F-actin, 2 F-actin strands form double helix to make actin
82
The cell cortex is made of what and does what?
- made of actin linked to filamin
| - makes a support meshwork that prevents the cell from deforming
83
What determines the physical properties of connective tissue?
Extracellular material
- ground substance
- fibers (ie collagen, reticulin, elastin)
84
What are the two components of elastic fibers? How are they organized?
Elastin and fibrillin. Organized in highly branched, random coiling pattern
85
Describe the process of collgen synthesis.
Glycoprotein->procollagen->tropocollagen-> collagen microfibril->collagen fiber->collagen bundle
86
What plasma protein functions as transporter for lipids and heavy metals ions?
Globulins
87
What is screted by the kidney and controls hemopoiesis?
Erythropoietin
88
What is Guillain-Barre syndrome?
immune-mediated demyelination in PNS, is resolveable
89
Decreasing cholesterol does what to fluidity?
Increases fluidity
90
Ratio of actin : myosin in skeletal and smooth Mm
Skeletal: 2:1
Smooth: 15:1
91
Neutrophils are associated with what kindof inflammation?
Acute: 1 wk - 10 days
92
What is Trisomy 21?
Downs Syndrome
93
What is the purpose of a junctional complex?
Forms diffusion barrier between cells. Prevents paracellular transport.
94
Peripheral vs Integral vs Transmembrane Membrane proteins
```
Peripheral = surface (extrinsic)
Integral = within membrane (intrinsic)
Transmembrane = spanning both sides (transmural)
```
95
The arachnoid and pia mater are often difficult to separate. What are they called when combined?
Leptomeninges
96
What tissue is vimentin found in?
mesodermal cells of mesenchymal origin (endothelial cells, muscle and neuroectodermal cells)
97
What is a graded response? Mm
Refers to # of muscel fibers contracting at a given moment
98
Where is neurofilament proteins located?
nerve cells
99
Where do platelets come from?
Megakaryocytes (large, multilobed nucleus) in bone marrow. Demarcation channels in cytoplasm where platelets "tear off"
100
What stain is used for fungi?
Silver stain
101
What is myelopoiesis?
white blood cell production
102
What is the most predominant GAG and what do bacteria use to destroy it?
Hyaluronic Acid, Hyaluronidase
103
Porin is found in which mitochondrial membrane?
Porin is found in the outer mitochondrial membrane
104
Raised eosinophil count means what?
allergies and/or parasitic infection
105
How does mycobacterium tuberculosis abvoid phagocytosis?
Prevents macrophages by preventing it from fusing phagosomes with lysosomes
106
What chemical "fixes" a cell and how does it do it?
- Formalin (37% formaldehyde)
| - cross-linking of proteins
107
Describe 2' lysosomes and how do they turn into 3' lysosomes?
- "phagolysosomes"
- function in intracellular digestion
- hydrolytic breakdown results in production of 3' lysosomes
108
What is a nucleosome?
segement of inactive DNA that wraps around histones
109
What structure connects the inner and outer nuclear membranes and what proteins make up this structure?
Nuclear pore complex connects the two layers. Nucleoporins regulate exchange of macromolecules between nucleus and cytoplasm.
110
Type 2 Collagen
| -makes what two kinds of collagen?
- Hyalin (joints)
| - Elastic (ear, elastin fibers)
111
What causes trisomies?
-Failure of homologous chromosome pairs to separate in first meiotic division
OR
-Failure of sister chromatids to separate during 2nd meiotic division (anaphase lag)
112
What tissue is GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein) found in?
Glial (support) cells of the nervous system (astrocytes)
113
What microfilament is found inside microvilli?
Actin
114
Describe 1' lysosomes and how do they turn in to 2' lysosomes?
- newly formed from rER and golgi
- inactive
- fuse to phagocytic vesicles to turn into 2' lysosomes
115
Why ALS non reversible?
ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Lou Gherig's Disease) is death of somatic motor neurons in CNS. These neurons are in G0 phase and cannot differentiate.
116
Type 3 Collagen
- made of what
- what is it used for
- what stain is used to see it?
- made of reticular fibers
- used for structural support in organs
- stains with silver stain (argyrophilic)
117
How do basophils function?
- contain proteoglycans mixture of heparin and chondroitin sulfate
- contain histamine, SRS, and ECF-A
118
Common symptom of cytoskeleton abnormalities
blistering of the skin. Cytoskeleton is responsbile for cell-cell ashesion
119
What is a Barr Body?
Degenerate X chromosome in females, made of heterochromatin
120
What are the fixed tissue macrophages?
- Kupfer cells (liver)
- Microglial cells (CNS)
- Langerhans cells (skin)
- Dust cells (lungs)
- Osteoclasts (bone)
121
What is thrombocytosis?
excess platelets in circulation
122
What is a Howell-Jolly body?
occasional basophilic nuclear remnants visible within cytoplasm of RBC
123
Describe the structure of an axoneme
9 doublets surrounding central doublet and connected by a spoke. 9 radial doublets connected by nexin
124
Gound substance is mostly made of what?
GAG's: glycosaminoglycans
125
During apoptosis, why do cells swell up?
Na+ pumps stop so it builds up in the cell. Water follows Na+ and eventually lyses the cell.
126
What tissue are neurofilament proteins found in?
neurons
127
Is epithelia vascular or avascular?
Avascular!
| **never penetrated by blood vessels
128
Larger nerves containing multiple fascicles are surrounded by ______?
Epineurium
129
Describe the process of apoptosis.
- Pyknosis: condensation of chromatin and nuc shrinks
- cell swells
- autolysis: lysosomes release catalytic enzymes into cytoplasm
- karyolysis and karyohexis initiated by caspace cascade
130
Z-discs act as what??
Anchoring points for actin myofilaments
131
What is the buffy coat
WBCs and platelets
132
What three glycoproteins are present in the basement membrane?
Laminin, enactin, tenascin (sounds like athlete's foot products)
133
What is a reticulocyte?
immature RBC with stippled cytoplasm (caused by RNA remnants)
134
What is Trisomy 13?
Patau Syndrome
135
What is Trisomy 18?
Edward Syndrome
136
What is myasthenia gravis?
autoimmune disease that produces antibodies to acetylcholine receptors which causes muscle weakness.
Tx with achetylcholinase inhibitors
***Beagle Experiment***
137
Describe 3'lysosomes
- "residual body"
- can be excreted or remain in cell for life
- can become lipofuscin pigment granules in neurons
138
What molecule is able to diffuse across the mitochondrial membrane to be used as a source of energy?
Pyruvic acid (derived from glucose)
139
What microfilament is found inside microvilli?
Actin
140
Basophils are characterized by large, basophilic ___ granules.
2' granules, contain hydrolytic enzymes, heparin sulfate, chondroiton sulfate, hsitamine, leukotrienes
141
What is parenchyma?
Cells that make up the functional elements of an organ.
142
Do B or T-cells have an anamnestic response?
Some of BOTH B and T-cells do not replicate but remain as memory cells
143
Eosinophils are characterized by large eosinophilic __ granules.
2' granules, contain histaminase, eosinophil peroxidase, lysosomal enzymes, major basic protein
144
What is the purpose of fibronectin?
foudn in basement membrane and aids in adhesion between cell membrane and ECM
145
What does holocrine mean?
Entire cell ruptures/secreted
146
What two structures form microtubules?
Alpha and beta tubulin
147
What is hematocrit
volume of RBCs
148
When a cell needs to produce more mitochondria? What does it do?
Nothing! Mitochondria have their own circular DNA and replicate via binary fission like bacteria.
149
What happens to a cell if it is unfixed?
Autolyze/denature
150
Why does cytoplasm become eosinophilic during apoptosis?
Proteins are broken down in the cytoplasm. Protein fragments are basic so red acidic dye binds.
151
What is Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome?
- affects Type 5 collagen
| - hyperextension of joints, skin fragility, and poor wound healing
152
What is an excess of collagen called? Excess fibroplasia?
Kleoid (scar)
153
Name for inactive DNA. How does it stain?
Heterochromatin, darkly staining
154
What stain is used for bacteria?
Gram stains
155
What is unique about prokaryotic DNA, and flagella?
DNA: it is circular
Flagella: lacks an axoneme
156
What is serum?
plasma not including clotting factors
157
What do antithrombin and heparin do?
anticoagulants
158
Type 1 Collagen
| -Where is it found?
loose and dense connective tissue, tendons, ligaments, bone and fibrocartilage
159
What leukocytes has antiparasitic functions?
Eosinophils
160
What are the steps of Interphase?
GSGM
- G1: 1st gap phase (cell growth, hypertrophy)
- S: synthesis (replication of DNA and centrioles)
- G2: 2nd gap phase (prep for mitosis, synth of ATP and tubulin for mitotic spindle)
- M: mitosis (karyokinesis ie. chromosome halves, cytokinesis ie. cell division)
161
What does fibrinogen do?
catalyzed by prothrombin->thrombin which polymerizes it to form fibrin for clotting
162
What are margination, pavementing, and diapedesis?
Methods which leukocytes leave circulation
163
Excitatory neurotransmitter for sympathetic vs parasympathetic ns?
SNS: noradrenaline
PNS: acetylcholine
164
What are the components of protoplasm?
- 70% water
- electrolytes
- proteins
- lipids
- carbohydrates
165
What is syncytia?
combining of muscle cells to become multinucleated
166
What tissue is desmin found in?
unique to muscle cells; mesodermal origin
167
What blood related condition might occure due to chromic blood loss or severe or chronic infections?
Reticulocytosis: inc in reticulocytes in circulation (left shift)
168
What cell cycle phase can become permanent?
G0 phase (can lose capacity to divide, neurons and cardiac myocytes)
169
What does smooth muscle have instead of troponin and how does it work?
Smooth Mm uses CALMODULIN.
| -Binds Ca+ and activates myosin cross-binding
170
What kind of epithelium lines cavities that connect with the outside environment?
Mucous Membrane
171
What is screted by the kidney and controls hemopoiesis?
Erythropoietin
172
What allows ribosomes to attach to the rER?
Receptor molecules specialized for ribosomal attachment.
173
Describe the structure of a diplosome
two centrioles at 90 deg to each other. Each made of a cylinder of 9 triplets of microtubules
174
What is the mitotic index?
proportion of cells in tissue in mitosis at any given time. Tumors have higher score
175
What neurotransmitter is used as a vasoconstrictor in the instrinsic pathway?
Serotonin
176
B-cells produce what and undergo what process after encountering Ag?
They produce antibodies and undergo clonal expansion to make more Ab producing cells
177
How do monocytes function?
- process antigen and present to immune cells
| - secrete cytokine involved in tissue repair
178
What tissue is (cyto)keratin found in?
all epithelial cells
| in epidermis of skin forms tonofibrils
179
What is Trisomy 13?
Patau Syndrome
180
Larger nerves containing multiple fascicles are surrounded by ______?
Epineurium
181
What kind of epithelium lines blood and lymph vessels?
Endothelium
182
What does polio affect?
Poliomyelitis (myelitis=inflam of spinal cord) affects alpha-motor neurons of vntral horn of spinal cord.
183
Where is vimentin located?
endothelial cells , muscle and neuroectodermal cells
184
What are inclusions?
- nonliving components of cells (ie. fat drops, pigments, etc)
- viral inclusions
- melanin (black/brown)
- lipofuscin (gold-brown, old age pigment)
185
Intrinsic pathway initiated by what?
Initiated by exposure of collagen
186
What two motor proteins attach to microtubules to function in intracellular movement?
Dynein and kynesin
187
What does smooth muscle have instead of z-discs?
Dense bodies
188
Where is lamin located?
forms layer on inside of nuclear membrane
189
What is the best known collagenopathy?
Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome
| -hyperextension of joints and poor wound healing
190
Wallerian vs Anterograde regeneration?
Wallerian: death of an axon
Retrograde: death of soma
191
What are the three steps of neuron regeneration?
1. Schwann cells multiply to physically bridge gap
2. Nerve axons sprout neurites from PROXIMAL stump
3. Nuerites grow into distal stump.
192
An overall reduction in leukocytes could mean what?
defective function of bone marrow
193
What is stroma?
Cells that make up framework of organ.
194
What neuroglia are the smallest neuroglial cells?
Microglia: come from monocytes, have immune function
195
Does nuclear material begin to fragment at karyolysis or karyohexis?
Karyohexis
196
What two processes do mitochondria use to produce ATP?
Kreb's Cycle and oxidative phosphorylation
197
Cardiac myocytes have __ t-tubule and __ cisterna of ER
One, one (diad)
198
_______ -> thrombin -> ________ -> _______
Prothrombin -> thrombin -> fibrinogen -> fibrin (insoluble)
199
Wallerian vs Anterograde regeneration?
Wallerian: death of an axon
Retrograde: death of soma
200
What is the smallest filament? What does it do?
Microfilaments, maintains cell shape, facilitates shape change
201
What structure acts like a "manhole cover"?
Tropomyosin which covers binding site on actin filament
202
What are the three types of T-cells?
- Cytotoxic/Killer T(Tc/Tk): destroy cells with foreign antigens
- Helper T (Th): sound chemical alarm
- Suppressor (Ts): suppress B-cells, *autoimmune dis*
203
What is the order of cardiac induction?
4 parts
SA Node -> AV Node -> Bundle of His -> Purkinje Fibers
204
Actin and myosin overlap in the _ ______?
A band
205
What does Parkinson's affect?
neurodegenerative disease causes death of SUBSTANTIA NIGRA
206
What is a Stab Cell?
immature neutrophil, large number common in chronic infections
207
How does Alzheimer's develop?
form of dimentia caused by neural plaques and fibrillary tangles
208
The INNER matrix of mitochondria contain dense granules. What do these granules do?
Thought to be binding/storage sites for Ca2+
209
What two layers make up cardiac valves?
lamina fibrosa covered by endothelium
210
What does terminally differentiated mean? What are facultative dividers?
TD: cells lose capacity to divide
FD: retain capacity for division with proper stimulus
211
What does smooth muscle have instead of T-tubules?
Caveolae (extracellular storage of Ca+)
212
What do 1' (asurophilic) granules contain?
Lysosomal enzymes (stain blue-purple)
213
What mutation causes sickel cell conditions?
Single AA substitution (valine for glutamic acid at position 6 of Beta-globulin chain. Changes 3D structure of Hb
214
Why might it be difficult to isolate the dura mater in the skull?
Because it fuses with the periosteum. In the spinal cord is it is surrounded by epidural space.
215
How are neuromuscular spindles and neurotendinous spindles different?
Neuromuscular: in belly of muscle, sense changes in length
Neurotendinous: (golgi tendon organs) within tendon, sensitive to tension
They are both intrafusal fibers
216
What connects the ECS with ER and intracellular environment of muscle fibers?
Transverse tubule system
217
During what two phases are chromosomes visible and why?
During S and M phases. Chromosomes condense
218
The convex is what face of golgi. The concave face is what face of the golgi?
Convex: forming
Concave: maturing (clathrin coated vesicles)
219
Why might it be difficult to isolate the dura mater in the skull?
Because it fuses with the periosteum. In the spinal cord is it is surrounded by epidural space.
220
Why do malignant cells have large dark nuclei?
Increased chromatin and extra numbers of chromosomes
221
What is serum?
Plasma - clotting factors = serum
222
What kind of epithelium lines the body cavities? (perotineal, pleaural, pericardial)
Mesothelium
