Lectures Flashcards
(221 cards)
1
Q
Deaths in the 1900s were the result of contact with:
A
impure drinking water, contaminated food, sick people
2
Q
Duration of illness in 1900s was very ______
A
Short
3
Q
T/F: in the 1900s people felt no control over whether they got sick
A
True
4
Q
In 1900, most deaths were from diseases rooted in _____ or ______ health problems
A
Public; community
5
Q
Leading cause of death in 1900
A
Pneumonia
6
Q
Leading cause of death in 2019
A
Heart disease
7
Q
In 21st century, most deaths are related to _______ and ______
A
Individual behavior; lifestyle
8
Q
__________ that could cure diseases were developed
A
Medical treatments
9
Q
What did rising costs of medical treatments lead to?
A
educating people about how their health behaviors could reduce illness
10
Q
Health behaviors
A
Alcohol abuse, Unhealthy eating, Smoking, Stress, Sedentary life style
11
Q
Improvement in what health behavior will likely lead to the largest reduction in mortality rates?
A
Smoking
12
Q
Ethnic differences in health may be due to differences in:
A
Income, Education, Access to medical insurance and care
13
Q
Hispanic Paradox
A
The research finding that Hispanics in the U.S. tend to paradoxically
have substantially better health than the average population in spite
of what their aggregate socioeconomic indicators would predict.
14
Q
Where does the US rank in the world of life expectancy?
A
24th among industrialized nations, 50th among all nations
15
Q
Life expectancy of European Americans alone
A
47th in the world
16
Q
Life expectancy for African Americans alone
A
113th in the world
17
Q
The life expectancy difference does not apply to _______ ______ although they have similar socioeconomic disadvantages.
A
Hispanic Americans
18
Q
How much did life expectancy change from 1900 to 2019?
A
30 years – from 47 years to 78 years
19
Q
What is most responsible for the change in life expectancy from 1900 – 2019?
A
Lower infant mortality
20
Q
African Americans are ________ as likely to die in infancy as European
Americans.
A
3 times
21
Q
What group has about the same infant mortality level as European
Americans despite having lower education levels, higher rates of
poverty, and poorer prenatal care?
A
Hispanic Americans
22
Q
Most Important Factors for change in life expectancy
A
Vaccinations, Safer Drinking Water, Milk supplies
23
Q
Other Important Factors for change in life expectancy
A
Healthier lifestyle, Efficient disposal of sewage, Better nutrition.
24
Q
Less Important Factors for change in life expectancy
A
Medical Advancements, Antibiotics, New surgical techniques, Better paramedics and ICUs
25
Why college isn’t good for your health
Stress, Drug Use, Less time for exercise and sleep, Poor diet
26
Why college is good for your health
Lower death rates from: Chronic diseases, Infectious diseases, and Unintentional injuries. Intelligence predicts good health and longevity, Learn about health care, Less likely to smoke, use illicit drugs, and More likely to eat a low fat diet and exercise
27
subjective measures of socioeconomic status have a
_____ relationship with health than objective measures
Stronger
28
Health care costs in the U.S are ______ than any other country
Greater
29
Cost per person rose from $2,072 in _____ to $13,493 in _____
1970; 2022
30
Why is health care so expensive?
People are living longer. As people live longer, they develop
chronic diseases
31
According to the CDC, approximately what percentage of adults in the U.S. have a chronic disease?
50
32
Chronic disease accounts for:
_____ of all health care costs
_____ of prescriptions
_____ of doctor visits
_____ of hospital stays
78%, 88%, 72%, 76%
33
5 most expensive diseases to treat in the U.S
Alzheimer’s, diabetes, heart disease and stroke, cancer, obesity
34
Prevention for chronic disease
Early detection and screening, Healthy lifestyles starting in youth, and Behavior change - that’s where health psychology comes in
35
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Experimental
Correlational
Cross-sectional
Longitudinal
Ex-post factor
36
Before there is a study, there is a ______
theory
37
Experimental design
Studies relationship between independent variable and dependent variable by manipulating the independent variable and comparing experimental group and control group on dependent variable.
38
What do theories do?
Generate hypotheses & research
Predict and explain research data
Should be modified with new findings
39
PLACEBO EFFECT
Inactive substance or condition that has the appearance of an active treatment and that may cause participants to improve or change due to the belief in the placebo’s ability to make a difference.
40
NOCEBO
Negative effects that can be produced by a placebo.
41
WHY DO PLACEBOS WORK?
Expectancy is a major component – they get well or
experience side effects because they think they should
42
The sham surgery was ___ ____ as effective as the
actual surgery in relieving knee pain.
at least
43
Why use correlational designs over experimental?
Sometimes it is not possible or ethical
44
Correlational research
Designed to assess the strength of the relationship between two variables.
45
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
Number that indicates the strength of relationship between
two variable
46
1.00
a perfect positive relationship; e.g. everyone who goes to private school goes to college.
47
0.00
no relationship; e.g. whether you went to private
school has nothing to do with whether you went to college.
48
-1.00
e.g. a perfect negative relationship; no one who goes
to private school goes to college.
49
Cross-sectional
compare two or more separate groups at only one time.
50
Longitudinal
follow same participants over extended time
51
Cross-sectional faster and cheaper, but longitudinal allows researchers to _____ _____ and _____ ______ __ ______
identify trends; determine direction of relationships
52
LONGITUDINAL DESIGNS
The Alameda County Study, Epidemiologist Lester Breslow followed people over 10 years to see who got sick (morbidity) and how many people died(mortality).
He wanted to see whether practice six or seven basic health related behaviors were related to morbidity or mortality
53
Strongly Related to Reduced Mortality:
Drinking alcohol in moderation or not at all
Not smoking cigarettes
Exercising regularly
54
Weakly Related to Reduced Mortality:
Getting 7 or 8 hours of sleep
Maintaining near ideal weight
55
Not Related to Reduced Mortality:
Eating breakfast almost every day
Rarely eating between meals
56
EX POST FACTO DESIGNS
Quasi experimental design in which values of the independent variable are not manipulated but chosen by experimenter after groups have naturally divided themselves.
57
OTHER RESEARCH CONCEPTS
Reliability
Validity
Meta-analysis
58
RELIABILITY
Consistency
The reliability of a measuring tool is the extent to which that
tool measures in a consistent fashion.
59
Test retest reliability
getting the same scores from one administration to another
60
Inter-rater reliability
two independent raters rate something similarly
61
Reliability often measured with ____ _____ or
_____ ______
correlation coefficient; percent agreement
62
VALIDITY
Accuracy
The extent to which a measuring instrument measures
what it is designed to measure.
63
Face validity
looks like it is measuring what it is supposed to measure
64
Construct validity
matches up with other measures of the same construct
65
EPIDEMIOLOGY
The study of factors contributing to the occurrence of a
disease in a particular population.
66
JOHN SNOW STUDY
Two water companies were supplying water to south
London
Cholera death rate was five x higher in homes receiving
water from one of the companies
Ultimate source of outbreak was a dirty diaper that contaminated the water supply
67
DISEASES CAN BE…..
Low prevalence and high incidence
High prevalence and low incidence
68
Low prevalence and high incidence:
Colds - low percentage of the population now, but more
new cases every year.
69
High prevalence and low incidence:
High blood pressure (hypertension) –high percentage of
the population now, but not as many new cases every
year.
70
RISK FACTOR
Any characteristic that occurs with greater frequency in
people with a disease than it does in people free from
that disease
71
PROTECTIVE FACTOR
Any characteristic that occurs with greater frequency in people who do not get a disease than it does in people free from that disease
72
Disease
process of physical damage within the body, which can exist even in the absence of a label or diagnosis.
73
Illness
experience of being sick and having been diagnosed as sick.
74
Illness behavior
activities undertaken by people who experience symptoms but who have not yet received a diagnosis
75
Sick role behavior
behavior of people after a diagnosis, whether from health care provider or self-diagnosis
76
WHAT INFLUENCES PEOPLE’S RESPONSE TO SYMPTOMS?
1. Personal factors
2. Gender differences
3. Age
4. Socioeconomic Status, Culture, Ethnicity
5. Symptom characteristics
6. Conceptualization of symptoms
77
PERSONAL FACTORS
Level of symptoms is NOT most important reason for people
seeking medical attention.
Anxiety about condition, coping resources, and level of
functioning predict treatment seeking.
78
STRESS
Those with higher level of stress are more likely to seek
treatment
Those with prolonged stress more likely to seek help for
ambiguous symptoms
Women under high stress judged less likely to have
disease than men under high stre
79
PERSONALITY
More neurotic people have higher self report of symptoms
and are more likely to complain of illness
80
GENDER DIFFERENCES
Women are more likely to seek treatment when they
have physical symptoms.
81
AGE
Young and middle aged people are the most reluctant to
check out symptoms.
82
Older people have to decide whether symptoms are ____ _____ or something else
Normal aging
83
SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS
People at higher socioeconomic levels are less likely to have
symptoms - less stress, more prevention
84
CULTURAL FACTORS
European Americans more likely than other groups to visit
physician.
85
Likelihood of seeking health care based on:
• visibility of symptoms
• perceived severity of symptoms
• extent to which symptom interferes with life
• frequency and persistence of symptoms
86
CONCEPTUALIZATION OF DISEASE
Based on:
• identity of disease
• time line
• determination of cause
• consequences of disease
• controllability of disease
87
IDENTITY OF DISEASE
More likely to seek care if disease is thought to be critical.
88
TIMELINE OF DISEASE
Many people conceptualize their disease as acute when it is actually chronic
Double edged sword – can increase short term behavior
but be ineffective in long run.
89
DETERMINATION OF CAUSE
E.g. if pain is due to injury vs. underlying disease
90
CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE
Some neglect care because they don’t understand the
long-term consequences
Some neglect care because they feel hopeless or believe
they’ve been given a death sentence
91
CONTROLLABILITY OF DISEASE
If disease or treatment are perceived as uncontrollable,
people are less likely to seek medical care.
92
NON-MEDICAL SOURCES
Lay referral network: family and friends who offer
information and advice before official medical treatment
is sought.
Can be helpful, but can also prime person’s perceptions of
symptoms.
93
Women and those with higher education most likely to use
the ________ for medical advice
internet
94
If the doctor finds the information _______ and _________,
the patient-doctor relationship may benefit.
relevant; accurate
95
Problems with receiving health care:
• Limited access to health care
• Choosing a practitioner
• The rise of managed health care
• Being in the hospital
96
What is a larger problem in the U.S. than other industrialized
countries?
Cost of healthcare
97
Medicare
pays hospital expenses for most Americans over the age of 65
98
Medicaid
provides health care based on low income and physical problems, such as disability or pregnancy
99
Those with health insurance more likely to have chronic
conditions diagnosed and managed such as:
• High blood pressure
• Diabetes
• High cholesterol
100
Practitioners who form a successful ______ ______with
patients more likely to have satisfied patients.
working alliance
101
Patients significantly _____ likely to follow medical advice when a doctor communicates ______
less; poorly
102
Do people prefer female or male doctors?
Female
103
Patients often choose physicians who are:
• Confident
• Thorough
• Personable
• Humane
• Forthright
• Respectful
• Empathic
104
Almost ___ of people seeking conventional care also seek
alternative care
1/3
105
____ _______ people are more likely to use alternative care
because they can afford it.
Well educated
106
Health Maintenance Organizations (HMOs)
originated with the concept that prevention is preferable to treatment.
107
Hospitalization is _____ common for many types of surgery
and tests.
less
108
Increased used of technology has added to the
____________ and _____ of being in the hospital.
depersonalization; stress
109
ADHERENCE
The extent to which a person is able and willing to
follow medical and health advice.
110
_________ people may die in the U.S. because they fail to
adhere to medical advice.
125,000
111
Average rate of nonadherence was ____ over the past 50 years.
25%
112
BEHAVIORAL THEORY
Based on principals of operant conditioning, especially positive and negative reinforcement.
113
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
Increasing the likelihood that a behavior will occur by adding a positively valued stimulus to the situation
114
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
Increasing the likelihood that a behavior will occur by subtracting a negatively valued stimulus to the situation (i.e. removing an aversive stimulus)
115
PUNISHMENT
Decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur by adding a negatively valued stimulus to the situation
116
BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
Behavioral approach has been applied to increase
adherence by the use of cues, rewards, and contracts to
reinforce adherent behavior
117
CUES
Written reminders of appointments or Telephone calls from doctorʼs office
118
Extrinsic reward example
receiving money or compliments
119
Intrinsic reward example
feeling healthier – good after visiting the dentist
120
Banduraʼs social cognitive theory
emphasizes the interaction of behavior, environment, and personal factors, especially cognition or thinking
121
SELF-EFFICACY
A personʼs belief that they have the ability to perform specific
behaviors that will lead to a desired outcome
122
Research has supported the role of self- efficacy in
several health behaviors including:
Exercise rehabilitation
Diet
Quitting smoking
123
THEORY OF REASONED ACTION
The most immediate determinant of behavior is the intention to perform a behavior.
124
Behavioral intention is determined by:
• Attitude towards a behavior – positive or negative
• Subjective norm – the value that significant others place on the behavior
125
The Theory of Planned Behavior
Adds your perception of how much control you have over your own behavior
126
____ _____ _________ better at predicting intention than behavior.
Theory of planned behavior
127
STAGES OF CHANGE
1. Precontemplation
2. Contemplation
3. Preparation
4. Action
5. Maintenance
6. Termination
128
PRECONTEMPLATION
People are unaware of the need to change or have no
desire to change.
129
CONTEMPLATION
• People are aware of and accept responsibility for problems.
• They are beginning to think about changing but have not yet actively decided to change.
130
PREPARATION
People have made a commitment to change and are
preparing themselves to begin the change process.
131
ACTION
People actively begin to modify their behaviors and their
surroundings.
132
MAINTENANCE
People have changes and are trying to consolidate their
changes and deal with lapses.
133
TERMINATION
People are no longer are threatened by the original
temptations, the problem behaviors do not return, and
clients have confidence that they can cope without
relapse.
134
Ways to measure adherence:
Ask the doctor, ask the patient, ask other people, monitor medication use, biochemical evidence, or a combination of methods
135
Which age demographic is the best at adherence?
Middle aged adults
136
Although the severity of a disease is not related to
adherence, the ______ associated with a condition is related
to adherence.
pain
137
_____ _____ ______ are associated with taking less medication.
Severe side effects
138
Why does depression decrease adherence?
• Part of depression is lack of motivation
• Less pleasure in things that reinforce them
• Hopelessness - this will never get better
139
Two kinds of beliefs may be important in adherence:
• Belief in ability to change behavior
• Belief that change will work
140
Economic factors on adherence:
• Being able to pay for the medication
• Not having to reduce the dose or save it up for the
future
• Being able to pay for screening or preventive health
care.
141
People with a network of ______ and _____ are more
likely to adhere to medical treatments.
family; friends
142
Cultural traditions _________ with Western medicine
lead to lower compliance with Western medicine
inconsistent
143
_____ _______ improves when they see their providers as warm, caring, friendly, and interested in their welfare.
Patient adherence
144
female practitioners generally:
• Show more friendly behaviors
• Listen better and longer
• Ask more questions
• which are all related to better adherence.
145
IMPROVING ADHERENCE
• Educational strategies
• Emotion-focused strategies
• Behavioral strategies
146
MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING
A way of relating that may help another person increase their motivation to make health related changes.
147
People have used the word “______” to describe a stimulus or a response
stress
148
Stress can come from:
• Cataclysmic events
• Changes in a person’s life history
• Hassles from everyday life
149
CATACLYSMIC EVENTS
Unique and powerful events that could be intentional
(terrorist attacks) or unintentional (natural disasters)
150
LIFE EVENTS
Major life events can be major sources of stress but
even minor life events can also be stressful
151
NEGATIVE LIFE EVENTS
• Expected death of a loved one
• Divorce
• Break up
• Retirement?
• Friend moves away
• Moving
• Quitting a job
152
DAILY HASSLES
• Events of everyday life – arguing with partner, traffic,
balancing work/family
• Physical environment – noise, pollution, crowding
• Psychosocial environment – discrimination, type of
job, balance of work/family
153
The bodyʼs response to stress involves two major
systems:
1. nervous system
2. neuroendocrine system.
154
Autonomic nervous system has 2 parts that act together:
• Sympathetic NS “Arouses”(fight-or-flight)
• Parasympathetic NS “Calms”(rest and digest)
155
Endocrine system
consists of ductless glands throughout the body.
156
Neuroendocrine system
endocrine glands that are controlled by and interact with the nervous system.
157
Both the endocrine and nervous systems _____,
_______, and _______ chemicals.
Share; synthesize; release
158
Pituitary gland
located in the brain; produces adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which is a hormone that plays a role in the stress response and acts on the adrenal gland.
159
Adrenal glands
located on the top of each kidney – releases cortisol, a hormone related to the stress response.
160
Cortisol
Can be used as index of stress
Assess in saliva and urine
161
Norepinephrine
Both a hormone and neurotransmitter
Produced in many places in body
162
Epinephrine (adrenaline)
Produced in adrenal medulla
Used as index of stress
Measured in urine
163
FIGHT OR FLIGHT
Once stress is perceived, the sympathetic division of ANS is
activated and mobilized body’s resources. “fight or flight” response – body is readying to either attack or escape
164
GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME
Hans Selye conceptualized stress as a nonspecific
response
165
Continued stress will cause:
prolonged resistance which may be related to ulcers, hypertension, asthma and possibly resistance to immune system
166
ALLOSTATIC LOAD
The physiological costs of chronic exposure to the stress
response.
167
PSYCHOLOGICAL VIEWS OF STRESS
Richard Lazarus saw a personʼs perception of an event
as more important than the event itself.
168
“transactional” view of stress
Emphasizes psychological factors including perception or appraisal, vulnerability, and coping.
169
PERCEPTION OF STRESS
How much the physiological stress response is activated depends on your perception or how you appraise an event.
170
Primary appraisal
person determines whether event is irrelevant, benign-positive (good), or stressful
171
Secondary appraisal
a person determines whether they can successfully apply coping strategies to alleviate stress.
172
Reappraisal
person incorporates any new information.
173
STRESS & GENDER
• Different stresses for men and women
• Working women often have multiple roles of employee,
partner, and mother.
174
Benefits of multiple roles
• Learn more coping strategies.
• Self-esteem not only in one area.
• Not just work oriented.
• Retirement not as tough.
• More friends
175
T/F: Men do more housework than a generation ago.
True, but they still do about half as much as women.
176
STRESS AND MARRIAGE
• Men get more benefits than women
• Men have more health problems when losing their spouse
than women.
177
Why do men have more health problems when losing their spouse than women?
Not sure… some think that womenʼs role as caregivers –
to their husbands and children – can mean they give more
care than they receive.
• Men may also rely on spouses more for emotional
support.
178
STRESS & DISCRIMINATION
• Racial and ethnic discrimination are the most studied.
• Discrimination has been linked to health problems.
The strongest link with health problems has been with
cardiovascular disease.
179
Discrimination may increase _____ _____ and _______ _______
blood pressure; cardiovascular reactivity
180
Stress can be measured in two broad ways:
• Physiological measures
• Self-report measures
181
PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES
• Blood pressure, heart rate, galvanic skin response,
respiration rate
182
SELF REPORT
• Life Events Scale - checklist of life events
• E.g. marriage, death, traffic violations
• Everyday Hassles Scale - measures daily hassles
(experiences of every day living that may be threatening
to a person’s well-being)
• E.g. traffic, concerns of weight, household chores
183
Advantages and disadvantages of physiological measures
• Advantages: reliable and direct
• Disadvantages: process may produce stress itself;
expensive
184
Advantages and disadvantages of self-report measures
• Advantages: Scales can predict occurrence of stress-
related symptoms (e.g., good predictive validity)
• Disadvantages: People may overreport some events and
underreport other events
185
COPING
Strategies people use to manage distressing problems
and emotions in their lives
186
PROBLEM-FOCUSED COPING
• It involves changing the source of stress.
• For example, if you donʼt do well on a test, then
making a study schedule and following it would be an
example of problem-focused coping
187
EMOTION-FOCUSED COPING
• It doesn’t involve changing the source of the stress, but
changing your emotional response to the stressor.
• For example, if you donʼt do well on a test, rather than
then making a study more you eat chocolate or drink
beer while you think about how you did on the test.
188
COPING WITH STRESS
• The best approach to coping may be to be flexible in
using problem-focused coping in situations you can
change and emotion-focused coping in situations you
canʼt change.
189
What are some situations that you cannot change?
• Things that happen in the past. Break-ups. Death of a
loved one.
190
PROACTIVE COPING
• Involves taking steps to avoid an anticipated stressor.
191
RELAXATION TECHNIQUES
• Modern uses of relaxation training can be traced to Edmond Jacobsen who developed progressive muscle relaxation during the 1930s.
192
Several forms of relaxation training exist, but the ones most
frequently used for pain and stress include:
• Diaphragmatic breathing
• Progressive muscle relaxation
• Guided imagery
• Biofeedback
193
DIAPHRAGMATIC BREATHING
• A simple technique that works well for many.
• Deep and slow breathing with your “belly.”
• Incorporated intentionally or unconsciously into many
other relaxation techniques.
194
PROGRESSIVE MUSCLE RELAXATION
• Tension is mostly physical and in the muscles.
• Sit/lay in a comfortable chair in a quiet place.
• Start with feet or head and go through muscle groups
throughout the body.
• First tense and then relax – to see what it feels like to be
tense and to relax.
• Later just relax.
195
GUIDED IMAGERY
Think of a calm, peaceful image such as a beach or mountain scene.
Concentrate on the scene using all of their senses regularly or when feeling pain or stress.
One idea is that this diverts attention away from what is painful or stressful
Closes the pain gate or induces the relaxation response.
196
COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY
• Based on the assumption that a change in the
interpretation of an event can change peopleʼs
emotional and physiological reaction to that event.
197
COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY
• Effective in helping people manage a wide variety of
problems that involve stress or pain including:
• Rheumatoid arthritis
• Irritable bowel
• Cancer
• Heart disease
• AIDS
• Diabetes
• Low back pain
• Headache
198
EMOTIONAL DISCLOSURE
• A therapeutic technique whereby people express their strong emotions by talking or writing about a stressful or traumatic events that caused the emotions.
199
EMOTIONAL DISCLOSURE
• Generally, the strongest effects have been in:
• Reducing feelings of emotional distress(anxiety and depression)
• Reducing physical symptoms
• Improving immune function
• Reducing blood pressure
• Reducing health care visits
200
How does emotional disclosure work?
May have to do with developing a coherent story – a story that makes sense about a traumatic or stressful experiences.
201
IMMUNE SYSTEM
• Tissues, organs, and processes that protect the body from
invasion
• Locates foreign microorganisms, mutant cells, or damaged
cells and activates processes to eliminate them.
202
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Immune system is spread throughout the body in the
form of the lymphatic system
203
Lymph
Tissue of lymphatic system (tissue components
of blood other than red cells and platelets)
204
LYMPHOCYTES
Type of white blood cell found in lymph
Originate in bone marrow but mature and differentiate
in other structures in the immune system.
205
Several types of lymphocytes:
T-cells
B-cells
Natural killer (NK cells)
206
THYMUS
Has endocrine functions and secretes thymosin, which
seems to be involved in maturation and differentiation of
T-cells
• Thymus largest during infancy and childhood and
atrophies in adulthood
207
THYMUS
Masses of lymphatic tissue located in the throat. Function
is similar to that of lymph nodes - trapping and killing
invading cells and particles.
208
SPLEEN
Organ near the stomach in the abdominal cavity
• Site of lymphocite maturation
• Holding station for lymphocites
• Disposal cite for worn out blood cells
209
FUNCTION OF IMMUNE SYSTEM
• Generally to protect against injury; specifically to protect
against foreign substances the body encounters
210
NONSPECIFIC RESPONSE
• Skin cells and mucous membranes are first line of
defense. If pathogens get past them, one of 2
processes may occur:
1. Phagocytosis
2. Inflammation
211
PHAGOCYTOSIS
• Attacking of foreign particles by cells of immune systems.
212
Granulocytes
contain granules filled with chemicals which are released and attack invaders.
213
Macrophages
several functions - scavenge for worn out
cells and debris, assist in initiation of specific immune
responses, secrete variety of chemicals that break down cell
membranes of invaders
214
INFLAMMATION
• Works to restore tissue damaged by invaders.
• Blood vessels in area of injury dilate causing redness and
warmth.
• Damaged cells release enzymes that help destroy invaders.
• Granulocytes & macrophages migrate to site of injury to help destroy invaders.
215
T-CELLS
The 1st time a pathogen enters the system, both general and
specific response occur. Fragments of invaders left over from
phagocytosis make contact with T-cells, which acquire specific receptors on their surface enabling them to recognize the invader.
216
cell-mediated immunity
Cytotoxic T-cells form and attack invaders at level of body cells, not blood stream.
217
STRESS & ASTHMA
• Proinflammatory cytokines may a fundamental or even
causal role in development of disorder
• Stressors, such as emotional events & pain can trigger
asthma attack
• Kids living in inner-city with parents who have mental
problems showed sharply heightened risk
218
STRESS & PREGNANCY
• Mothers who are stressed are more likely to deliver preterm babies and babies with lower birth weights
• Chronic stress more damaging than acute stress
• Stress later in pregnancy more damaging than earlier stress
219
STRESS & DEPRESSION
• Stress contributes to development of depressive symptoms
• Rumination may increase stress and depression
220
Kindling hypothesis
major life stress provides a “kindling experience that prompts the development of depression
221
STRESS & PTSD
• Post-traumatic stress disorder: “development of
characteristic symptoms following exposure to an extreme
traumatic stressor involving direct personal experience of an
event that involves actual or threated death or serious
injury”
• PTSD produces long-lasting suppression of the immune
system and an increase in proinflammatory cytokines.
