LESSON 1 Flashcards by Ivy Catherine Largueza

Microscopic organisms that can infect hosts, like humans, plants or animals.It can’t reproduce without a host (Non cellular). RNA or DNA genome surrounded by a protective, virus-coded protein coat.

VIRUS

2 COMMON GROUPS
-DNA
-RNA

2 COMMON VIRUS
-Common cold
-The flu

Viruses can also be classified by their shape, such as icosahedral, helical, or complex.

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Microscopic living organisms that have only one cell.

BACTERIA

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Have cell walls made of a variety of materials, but never peptidoglycan.
Found in extreme environments, such as hot springs, deep-sea vents, and hypersaline water

ARCHEA

Thermophilic-Hot
Psychrophilic-Cold
Halophilic-Salty

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Two domains of prokaryotic organisms that differ in their cell walls, cell membranes, and the environments they inhabit. HAS CELL, SINGLE CELL ORGANISM

Archaea and eubacteria
(archaea eubacteria)

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Also called as true bacteria. (modern-day bacteria.) They are prokaryotic cells.

EUBACTERIA

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Organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

EUKARYOTES
( Eukarya- is the domain of organisms that are eukaryotes)

ANEMALIA
PROTESTA
PLANTAE
FUNGI

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Any organism that lacks a distinct nucleus and other organelles due to the absence of internal membranes.

PROKARYOTES

divided into two distinct groups:

Eubacteria and the archaea

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Illnesses that are caused by organisms, usually microscopic in size, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites that are passed, directly or indirectly, from one person to another.

Infectious disease

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A disease that cannot be spread from person to person. It is the diseases that are caused by genetics, lifestyle, or environmental factors, rather than pathogens.

NON- INFECTIOUS DISEASE

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DOMAINS OF EUKARYOTES AND PROKARYOTES

EUKARYOTES- EUKARYA
PROKARYOTES- EUBCTERIA AND ARCHEA

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CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

GROWTH
CELLULAR ORGANIZATION
RESPONSE TO STIMULUS

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BOTH CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE AND LIFE PROCESS

EXCRETION
ADAPTATION
ENERGY REQUIREMENT
REPRODUCTION

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LIFE PROCESS

EXTINCTIONS

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An archaic scientific theory which stated that living organisms could arise from nonliving matter and that such a process was regular in nature.

It also explained the origin of life from the nonliving subjects. According fto that theory, a piece of bread and cheese wrapped and left in a corner could give rise to mice in a few weeks, or maggots could rise from dead lesh.

Spontaneous generation theory

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Spontaneous generation’s hypothesis was designed by ____ on the basis of previous work of natural philosophers and the theory held its place for two millenniums.

ARISTOTLE

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____ and ____ then challenged this spontaneous generation theory in the 17th and 18th centuries, but it was still not discredited.

Francesco Redi and Lazzaro Spallanzani

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Then the work of ____ and____ in the 19th century that this spontaneous generation theory was finally disproved.

Louis Pasteur and John Tyndall

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ACCORDING TO HIM:
* every living being is made up of a compound of matter and form.
* In his sexual theory of reproduction, he stated that male’s semen was efficient cause that passed down characteristics to female matter (menstrual blood), and gave rise to its offspring.
* He believed that the male semen and female matter were refinements that were produced by bodies as a result of their proportions of heat, ingested food and were a by product of the elements earth and water.
* He believed that creatures arose from spontaneous generation and not sexual reproduction.

ARISTOTLE

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He was an Italian naturalist who challenged the ancient belief of spontaneous generation of maggots on decaying meat in 1668. Founder of Experimental Biology

FRANCESCO REDI

cons (ANTI)

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He is an Italian botanist, performed another experiment in 1729 where he placed fungal spores on a slice of melon and observed that the same was produced on the melon slice. He concluded that the new spores definitely did not arise from spontaneous generation.

Pier Antonio Micheli

CONS (ANTI)

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English biologist, did yet another experiment in 1745 with boiled broths. He infused a broth by mixing plant and animal matter and boiled it in the belief that it would kill all themicroorganisms.

(the broth was not boiled vigorously so as to kill all the microorganisms.)

John Needham

PRO

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An Irish physicist, advanced the work of Louis Pasteur and finally the theory of spontaneous generation was disproved.

John Tyndall

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In 1859, He is a French microbiologist conducted another broth experiment that settled the question of spontaneous generation once and for all.

SWAN NECK EXPERIMENT

Louis Pasteur

CONS (ANTI)

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an Italian biologist, reattempted Needham’s experiment in 1768. He took animal and plant matter-infused broths and boiled them vigorously. He kept one of the jars sealed and left the other one open to the air. According to his observations, the sealed jar was clear and did not have any growth. He then concluded that air was the force that was introducing microbes into the flask.

Lazzaro Spallanzani

CONS (ANTI)

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In 1862 Announced a **prize for the scientists** who shed new light on the spontaneous generation controversy and appointed a jury to decide the winner.

French Academy of Sciences

**Louis pasteur was awarded** the ____ from the Paris Academy of Sciences for his work that totally threw away the concept of spontaneous generation

Alhumbert Prize

1n **1864,**Pasteur was quoted saying in a lecture: “**Omne vivum ex vivo**” means:

“Life only comes from life” | BIOGENESIS

the **scientific study of life** and living organisms. It's a natural science that includes the study of cells, genes, and how living things interact with each other and their environment.

BIOLOGY

BASIC SUBDIVISION OF BIOLOGY

**1. GENETICS**- the study of how genes and how traits are passed down from one generation to the next **2. CYTOLOGY**-the study **single cells**, their structure, function, and pathology **3. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY-**the study of the chemical and molecular processes that occur in cells.

TAXONOMY SUBDIVISION

**1. ORNITHOLOGY**- BIRDS **2. HERPETHOLOGY**- CRAWLING REPTILES **3. ICHTHYOLOGY**- FISH **4. PTERIDOLOGY**- FERNS AND OTHER PLANTS **5. ENTOMOLOGY**- INSECTS

the study of how living organisms interact with each other and their environment. (**STUDY OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LIVING ORGANISM**)

ECOLOGY

3 OTHER FIELD OF BIOLOGY

**1. BOTANY** **2. ZOOLOGY** **3. MICROBIOLOGY**- Bacteria(small single cell), protists, fungi

It is the theory that **all living things have evolved from simpler forms over time**. It explains how genetic changes in a species over generations lead to the development of new species.

ORGANIC EVOLUTION

The idea that a supernatural power, such as a **god, created life on Earth**. This theory is also known as the theory of **special creation.**

SUPERNATURAL THEORY

the development of life from pre existing life | LIFE FROM LIFE

**BIOGENESIS** PRO: 1. Francesco Redi 2. Pie Antonio Micheli 3. Lazzaro Spallanzani 4. Louis Pasteur

It believed that the **life developed from microscopic spontaneously formed spherical lipid molecules** held together by electrostatic forces, probably the earliest form of cells. -**First widely accepted** scientific theory of organic evolution

**Oparin- Haldane Theory** Inorganic chemicals like: **CH4**-METHANE **H2O**-WATER **NH3** AMMONIA (NITROGEN AND HYDROGEN) | Given by: A.I OPARIN 1924, J.B.S HALDANE 1929 ## Footnote SUPPORTED BY: MILLER & UREY 1953

The Miller–Urey experiment demonstrated the possibility of producing **biomolecules from the chemical components of the primordial atmosphere, using an electric discharge**.

ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE

a **chemical reaction**that creates polymers by combining smaller molecules, called monomers, into larger molecules.

POLYMERIZATION

dense, polymer-rich **liquid droplets** that form spontaneously in aqueous solutions. They are created by **liquid-liquid phase separation** (LLPS), a process that involves weak interactions between molecules.

Coacervate droplets

These are all **biomolecules** that are essential to life. They are involved in many processes, including energy storage, cell signaling, and hormone production. (Produced **cell membrane**)

LIPIDS, AMINO ACID, PROTEIN

are **hollow, spherical structures** that form when **amino acids are heated** and then **dissolved in water**

Proteinoid microspheres

The universe originated from **gigantic explosion of fireball**, scattering outwards * Gaseous clouds (**HYDROGEN** and **HELIUM**) spread in the space in ever expanding volume

BIG BANG THEORY

Are both microscopic structures that may have been involved in the origin of life. When combined it can produced **PROTO BIONTS**

**COACERVATE DROPLETS** AND **PROTEINIOD MICROSPHERES**

**Phases of organic evolution** as per Oparin-Haldane Theory | CPA COOC FMPF

1. cosmos 2.primitive earth 3.atomic phase 4.cooling or earth 5.origin of molecules and simple compunds 6.origin of organic compounds 7.coacervates 8.first living cell or protovirus 9.monerans 10.protistans and autotrophism 11.fungi,plantae,animalia

Earth originated as a rotating red hot ( 5000 to 6000 degree C)

PRIMITIVE EARTH

Cooling or earth by torrential rain favoured reactions. These reactions got enery from: * **Ultra violet rays** from sun * **Electrical discharge** as lightning during rain * **Heat** from volcanoes

**ORIGIN OF MOLECULES AND COMPOUNDS** OXYGEN BEING MORE REACTIVE= **2H₂ + O₂ ENERGY 2H₂O** SULFUR REACT WITH HYDROGEN **2H₂ + S₂ ENERGY 2H₂S**

* Due to property of catenation, carbon combined with itself to form long chains * hydrogen form hydrocarbons by U.V rays, lightning, and volcanoes * Polymerisation

Origin of organic compounds

* The **rain** formed shallow **hot seas** * Gradually they become **larger oceans** * These **oceans serves as medium** for complex chemical reactions leading to origin and evolution of organic compounds * So, **first life originated by abiogenesis** and the rest lives by biogenesis

HOT WATER BROTH

* Proximity and more complex reactions among organic compounds gradually got surrounded by fatty acid membrane these are called: **COACERVATES** AND **LIVING MOLECULES** * Auto replication led to **biogenesis**

COACERVATES

Coacervates having nucleic acid became the **first living cell**

FIRST LIVING CELL/ PROTOVIRUS

Further complex life form and **reorganisation of protoviruses** gave arise to ____

**monerans** and **protistans**

Some **monerans were chemoautotrophs** and some **protistans were photoautotrophs**. They liberated free oxygen into atmosphere, converting earths atmosphere into oxidising one. It **supported origin and evolution of more complex life forms.**

ORIGIN OF AUTOTROPHISM

In course of time **protistans gave rise** to all these

FUNGI,PLANTAE,ANIMALIA

Viruses that made of **RIBONUCLEIC ACID**. Has a higher mutation rate when compared to DNA virues

RNA VIRUS

Virus that made of **DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID**

DNA VIRUS

* Universe is made of countless number of galaxies ● Galaxies are huge groups of billions of str system ● Milky way is our galaxy with about 100 billion stars besides our sun ● Our sun is a star of about 5 billion years old, it is in rapid burning & motion ## Footnote The 8 planets are **Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune**, (My Very Easy Method Just Studies Under News)

THE COSMOS OR UNIVERSE

refers to all the chemical reactions an organism uses to take in and **transform energy** from the environment

METABOLISM

Known for his pea plant experiments, He is now regarded as the '**father of genetics**' because he worked out so much about how traits are passed from one generation to the next, despite living long before anyone had heard of DNA, chromosomes or genes.

GREGOR MENDEL

Organic compounds are chemical substances that:

a. Make up organisms b. Help organisms carry out life processes

All contain the elements **carbon & hydrogen** a. **Carbon** is the **major element** - Without carbon, life as we know it would cease to exist

READ ONLY

Nearly ________ carbon-containing organic compounds are known

10 MILLION

**Types of carbon compounds** in organisms include:

**carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,** and **nucleic acids**

Carbon can bond with a wide variety of **other elements** forming a variety of very large and complex molecules including:

**hydrogen, oxygen**, and **nitrogen**

Carbon can also **bond to other carbons**

may form **single, double**, or even **triple bonds**

● Contain only **carbon, hydrogen** and **oxygen** ● The **most common** of the four major types of organic compounds ● All consist of one or more smaller units called **monosaccharides**

CARBOHYDRATES

are **found in foods** such as **fruits, milk and vegetables** **Cake, candy**, and other refined products are simple sugars which also **provide energy but lack vitamins, minerals, and fiber**

**SIMPLE** CARBOHYDRATES

provide **vitamins, minerals, and fibers** Food such as **sugars, breads, legumes, rice, pasta, and starchy vegetables** contains:

**COMPLEX** CARBOHYDRATES

Disaccharides

* **Sucrose**- C12 H22 O11 Table sugar * **Lactose**- C12 H22 O11 Milk * **Maltose**- C12 H22 O11 Malt sugar

Monosaccharides

* **Fructose**- Fruits * **Glucose**-From digestion of other carbohydrates * **Galactose, or ribose**- **Galactose**: Milk, **Ribose**: DNA RNA

Polysaccharides

* **Starch** (Potatoes) Used by plants to store energy * **Glycogen** (In human liver) cells used by animals to store energy * **Cellulose** (Cell walls of plants) Used by plants to form rigid walls around cells * **Chitin** (Exoskeleton of some insects) Used by some animate to form an external skeleton

Common Monosaccharides:

**glucose** (C6 H12 O6), **fructose** (C6 H12 O6)

Two monosaccharides bonded together form a disaccharide.

Sucrose (table sugar) Both **monosaccharides and disaccharides** are known as **simple sugars and provide energy** to living cells…

**Two or more monosaccharides** bond together, form a carbohydrate called a - May contain a **few** monosaccharides to **several thousand** monosaccharides - Main functions are to **store energy** and form structural tissues (cell walls, exoskeletons)

POLYSACCHARIDES (COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES)

Molecules with the **same chemical formula** but with **atoms in a different arrangement** are called:

ISOMERS

● Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen - include substances such as **fats and oils** * molecules consist of **glycerol & 3 fatty acids** * **hydrophobic**; non-polar * Are they soluble in water???? - NO **Bilayer sheet**= phospholipids bilayer **Hydrophopic tails Hydrophilic heads**

LIPIDS

Fats that **found in animal products** such as butter, cheese, whole milk, ice cream, and fatty meats, and oils such as palm, coconut, and palm kernel oil

SATURATED FATS

fatty acids are found in **fried foods, commercial baked goods, processed foods and margarine**

TRANS-FATTY ACIDS

TYPE OF LIPIDS:

1. **Triglycerides**- are the main form of **stored energy** in animals. This type of lipid is commonly **called fat** 2. **Phospholipids**- are a major component of the **membranes surrounding the cells** of all organisms 3. **Steroids (or sterols)**- have several functions. The sterol cholesterol is an important part of cell membranes and plays other vital roles in the body. Other steroids are **male and female sex hormones**

(also called a **double sugar or biose**) is the sugar formed when two monosaccharides are joined by glycosidic linkage. Like monosaccharides, it is s**imple sugars soluble in water**. Three common examples are **sucrose, lactose, and maltose.**

disaccharide

a **simple sugar** that is made up of **carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen** atoms. ________ are the **basic building blocks of more complex carbohydrates** and molecules.

monosaccharide

a layer of **two sheets** of **phospholipids arranged** in a membrane.

phospholipid bilayer

TYPES OF LIPIDS THAT are the main form of **stored energy** in **animals.** This type of lipid is commonly called **fat**

Triglycerides

Types of lipids that have several functions. The **sterol cholesterol** is an important part of cell membranes and plays other vital roles in the body. Other steroids are **male and female sex hormones** found in **plants, animals, and fungi**

Steroids (or sterols)

Types of lipid that are a major **component of the m****embranes surrounding the cells of all organisms** Where found in **Liver** and **Peanuts**

Phospholipids

● are **solids at room temperature** ● it refers to the **placement of hydrogen atoms** **around the carbon atoms** ● It have a **COOH** group; all the **C atoms** (other than the C in the -COOH group) are bonded to two or more H atoms with single bonds - they form **straight chains** ● Structure allows ________ to be packed together **tightly; dense storage of chemical energy** - fatty tissues of **animals** contain mainly ______

Saturated fatty acids

* are **liquids at room temperature** * also have a **COOH group**; some carbon atoms are not bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible because they are bonded to one or more additional groups, including **double and triple bonds** between carbons * they cause the **chain to bend** - do not form straight chains * found mainly in **plants**, especially in fatty tissues such as **nuts and seeds.**

Unsaturated fatty acids

**One double carbon** bond means:

Monounsaturated fatty acid

**Two or more double bonds** means:

Polyunsaturated fatty acid

Essential fatty acids

1. Omega 3- cold water fish like tuna, salmon, lake trout, mackarel,shrimp, Plant sources like flaxseed oil and pumpkin seed oil 2. Omega 6- help regulate inflamtion and blood pressure

Contain **carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen** ● Made of smaller units called **amino acids (monomers)**. - **20** different common amino acids make proteins - Small proteins can contain just a few hundred amino acids. - Yeast proteins average 466 amino acids.

PROTEINS

The largest known proteins are the ____, found in muscle, which are composed from almost 27,000 amino acids.

titins

FUNCTION OF PROTEINS

Essential part of all organisms; that serve many functions - **provide a** **scaffolding** that maintains the shape of cells - **make up the majority of muscle tissues** - some are enzymes that **speed up chemical reactions** in cells - others are **antibodies** - Still other **help carry messages** or materials in and out of cells or around the body ● Most important trait of proteins, allowing them to carry out these functions, is their ability to ***bond with other molecules. They can bond with other molecules very specifically and tightly*

Amino acids can bond together to form **short chains** called ____ or **longer chains** called _____

Short- **peptides** long- **polypeptides**

Protein consists of:

one or more polypeptide chains

# ``` The **change in the shape of protein molecules** without denaturation means we could not eat many delicious foods; it is necessary for survival so we can break down proteins we eat into components our bodies can use; changes or halts the shape of the protein molecule/cellular function. Is **caused by extreme conditions: heat, acid (change of pH), or force 40 C**

PROTEIN DENATURATION

● Contain **carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus** - made of **smaller units called *nucleotides*.** ● are found not only in all living cells but also in viruses

Nucleic acids

STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

Consists of **one or two chains of nucleotides** held together by chemical bonds ● Each individual nucleotide unit consists of **three parts:** - a base (containing **nitrogen**) - four bases: A**denine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine** in DNA, or **Uracil** in RNA - a **sugar** (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA) - a **phosphate group** (containing phosphorus) ● RNA consists of a single chain of nucleotides, ● DNA consists of two chains of nucleotides

Types of nucleic acids include:

A. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) B. ribonucleic acid (RNA).

PROTEIN AND DIET

● Proteins in the diet are necessary for life - Dietary proteins are broken down into their component amino acids when food is digested - Cells can then use the components to build new proteins ● Humans are able to synthesize all but **eight of the twenty common amino acids.** ● These eight amino acids, called **essential amino acids**, must be consumed in foods

contains the **genetic instructions** for the correct sequence of amino acids in proteins

DNA

are **o****rganic molecules that consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.** They are made up of repeating units called saccharides. They provide cells with energy, store energy, and form structural tissues.

CARBOHYDRATES

uses the information in DNA to assemble the amino acids and make the proteins.

RNA

It has exceptional ability to **form bonds with other elements and with itself allows it to form a huge number of large, complex molecules called organic molecules**. These molecules make up organisms and carry out life processes.

CARBON

are organic compounds that consist of **carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.** They are made up of **fatty acids** and other compounds. They **provide cells with energy, store energy, and help form cell membranes.**

LIPIDS

**HOW RNA CODES FOR PROTEINS** THAT have different functions relating to the **genetic code** and proteins

DNA and RNA

are organic compounds that consist of **carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus**. They are made up of repeating units called **nucleotides**. They **contain genetic instructions** for proteins, help synthesize proteins, and pass genetic instructions on to daughter cells and offspring

NUCLEIC ACIDS

Mechanical A **long, cylindrical tube** that extends from the eyepiece down to the nosepiece, aligning the optical components.

Body tube

are organic compounds that consist of **carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and, in some cases, sulfur**. They are made up of repeating units called **amino acids**. They provide cells with energy, form tissues, speed up chemical reactions throughout the body, and perform many other cellular functions.

PROTEINS

Mechanical A **circular, rotating disk** that holds multiple objective lenses and allows easy switching between different magnifications.

Revolving nosepiece

Magnifying A **short to medium-length metal tube with a lens** at the end, typically marked with a magnification (e.g., 10x)

Medium power objective

Magnifying The **shortest objective lens**, usually with a **red or yellow** marking, indicating low magnification (e.g., 4x).

Low power objective

Magnifying A **longer objective lens with a higher magnification** (e.g., 40x), often marked with a **blue stripe**

High power objective

Mechanical Small, flat **metal clips** attached to the stage, designed to hold the slide securely in place

Stage clips

Illuminating A circular, adjustable disk with **multiple holes,** located beneath the stage, used to **control light intensity**

diaphragm

Illuminating Usually a **small, built-in LED or mirror** at the base, providing illumination for viewing the specimen.

Light source

Magnifying A **small tube at the top** of the microscope, containing a lens (typically 10x magnification) for **viewing the specimen.**

Ocular lens (eye piece)

Mechanical A **curved or straight vertical structure** that supports the body tube and **connects to the base, also serving as a handle for carrying**

Arm

Mechanical A **flat, black or dark-colored platform** with an **opening in the center**, where slides are placed for observation.

Stage

Mechanical A large, round knob, usually on the **side of the microscope, used for major focusing adjustments.**

Coarse adjustment knob

Mechanical A** smaller knob, often located near the coarse adjustment knob,** used for fine-tuning the focus

Fine adjustment knob

Mechanical The heavy, broad **bottom part of the microscope**, providing stability and support, often rectangular or U-shaped.

base

Contains the **genetic instructions** for protein synthesis.

DNA

The **initial RNA transcript** formed from DNA.

Pre-mRNA

The processed **RNA that carries the genetic code** from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.

Mature mRNA

The **channel through which mRNA exits the nucleus.**

Nuclear Pore

A set of **three nucleotides** in mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid.

CODON

The **cellular machinery that reads mRNA** and assembles amino acids into a protein.

Ribosome

**Carries amino acids to the ribosome** and **matches them with the correct codons**

tRNA (Transfer RNA)

A sequence of three nucleotides on tRNA that pairs with a complementary codon on mRNA

Anticodon

The **chain of amino acids** that eventually forms a protein.

Growing Amino Acid Chain (Protein)

The **building blocks of proteins** that are floating in the cytoplasm and get attached to tRNA.

Free Amino Acids

The **final product**, which may be used for various cellular functions.

Newly Formed Protein

essential for **cell function and gene expression.**

Protein synthesis

process that ensures that genetic information from **DNA is copied into RNA,**

Transcription process

process that **converts information** into a functional protein. The accuracy of these processes is crucial for maintaining cellular functions and supporting life

Translation process

# ``` Are the **basic unit of life**. It **shares some common features**, but **differ based on their specific jobs** is the **basic Structural and functional unit of living organisms.** In other words, cells make up living things and carry out activities that keep a living thing alive.

CELLS

are easy to distinguish from each other based on the presence of a **cell wall or chloroplasts** (in areas where photosynthesis occurs).

Plant and animal cells

* are generally **smaller** * tend to have an **irregular shape** because they lack a cell wall

Animal cells

A **large membrane** bound structure that contains DNA and other genetic materials.

Nucleus

involved in **photosynthesis** also have **chloroplasts**, although these won’t be present in areas (such as roots) where photosynthesis is not occurring. It also tend to have **one large vacuole,** whereas animal cells may have several smaller vacuoles. However, plant and animal are **both eukaryotic cells** and share many other cellular organelles.

Plant Cell

This cellular organelle is composed of a **thin, winding network** of membranous sacs originating from the nucleus.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

A **jelly-like material** which contains all the cell organelles, enclosed within the cell membrane. The substance found within the cell nucleus, contained by the nuclear membrane is called the nucleoplasm.

Cytoplasm

A **flat, smooth layered, sac-like** organelle which is located near the nucleus and involved in manufacturing, storing, packing and transporting the particles throughout the cell.

Golgi apparatus

**Spherical or rod-shaped organelles** with a **double membrane**. They are the **powerhouse of a cell** they play an important role in producing ATP/energy.

Mitochondrion (plural – mitochondria)

**Small organelles** made up of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules and they are the sites of protein synthesis.

Ribosome

A **thin semipermeable** membrane layer of protein and fats surrounding the cell. Its primary role is to protect the cell from its surrounding. Also, it controls the entry and exit of nutrients and other microscopic entities into the cell.

Cell Membrane

Round organelles surrounded by a membrane comprising of digestive enzymes which help in digestion, excretion and in the cell renewal process.

Lysosome (Cell Vesicles)

**Surrounds the outside of the cell membrane in plant cells only.** Provides tensile **strength and protection** against osmotic and mechanical stresses.

Cell Wall

**simple squamous epithelial cells.** That means they are roughly shaped like a sunny side up egg (flat with the nucleus roughly in the middle of the cell). Students will see the nucleus, cell membrane and the cytoplasm.

Cheek Cell

Small in **animal cells** and generally **hold waste products.** Much larger in plant cells and generally store water and help maintain water balance within the cell.

Vacuoles

Found in plant cells only and are the **site of photosynthesis.**

Chloroplasts

a **collection of ideas** and conclusions from many different scientists over time that describes cells and how cells operate

CELL THEORY 1. All known living things are made up of one or more cells. 2. All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division. 3. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in all living organisms.

CELL THEORY TIMELINE

* 1665-**Robert Hooke** Discovered cell * 1674- **Anton Van Leeuwenhoek** Observed living cell * 1883- **Robert Brown** Discovered nucleus * 1835 **Felix Dujardin** Discovered fluid content of cell * 1838 **Matthias Schleiden** Proposed all plants are made up of cells * 1839 **J. E. Purkinje** Named fluid content of cell as protoplasm * 1839 **Theodor Schwann** Proposed all animals are made up of cells * 1845 **Carl Heinrich Braun** Proposed cell is the basic unit of life * 1855 **Rudolf Virchow** Proposed all cells arise from pre-existing cells

An organism that is made up of **more than one cell** is called as

Multicellular Organisms

An organism that is made up of only **one cell** is called as :

Unicellular Organisms

Size of Cells

* Cells **vary** in size. * Most cells are **very small** (**microscopic**), some may be **very large** (**macroscopic**). The unit used to measure size of a cell is **micrometer**. * Smallest cell * Mycoplasma * Size: 0.1 µm * Largest cell * Ostrich egg * Size: 18 cm 1 µm = 1/ 1 0 00 millimeter

Size of Cells in Humans

**Smallest cell** Sperm cell Size: 5 µm **Largest cell** Ovum cell Size: 120 µm Longest cell Nerve cell Size: 1 m

Shape of Cells

* Cells **vary** in shape. * Variation **depends** mainly upon the function of cells. * Some cells like **Euglena and Amoeba** can change their shape, but **most cells have a fixed shape**.

are **branched** to conduct impulses from one point to another.

Nerve cells | SHAPE OF CELLS

are **circular biconcave** for easy passage through human capillaries.

Human RBCs | Shape of cells

can **change their shape** to engulf the microorganisms that enter the body

HUMAN WBCs | SHAPE OF CELLS

Structure Of Cell

* The detailed structure of a cell has been studied under compound microscope and electron microscope. * Certain structures can be seen only under an electron microscope. * The structure of a cell as seen under an electron microscope is called **ultrastructure**

Magnification 2000X

Compound microscope

Magnification 500000X

Electron microscope

If we study a cell under a microscope, we would come across three features in almost every cell:

1. plasma membrane, 2. nucleus 3. cytoplasm.

* Extremely **delicate, thin , elastic, living and semi-permeable** membrane * Made up of **two layers of lipid** molecules in which protein molecules are floating * Thickness varies from 75-110 A˚ * Can be observed under an **electron microscope only** Functions: * **Maintains** shape & size of the cell * **Protects** internal contents of the cell * **Regulates** entry and exit of substances in and out of the cell * Maintains **homeostasis**

Plasma Membrane

the process of maintaining a **stable internal environment in the body.** It's a key concept in physiology that involves regulating body temperature, blood pressure, and other factors.

HOMEOSTASIS

* Dense spherical body located near the **centre of the cell** * Diameter varies from 10-25 µm * **Present in all the cells except red blood cells and sieve tube cells** * Well developed in plant and animal cells * Undeveloped in bacteria and blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) * Most of the cells are uninucleated (having only one nucleus) * Few types of cells have more than one nucleus (skeletal muscle cells)

NUCLEUS

* **Non-living and outermost covering** of a cell (plants & bacteria) * Can be **tough, rigid** and sometimes **flexible** * Made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin * May be **thin or thick, multilayered** structure * Thickness varies from 50-1000 A˚ Pectin Functions: * Provides definite **shape, strength & rigidity** * Prevents drying up(desiccation) of cells * Helps in controlling cell expansion * **Protects cell from external pathogens**

CELL WALL

Colourless dense sap present inside the nucleus known as

nucleoplasm

contain stretches of DNA called genes

Chromosomes

* **Jelly-like** material formed by **80 %** of water * Present between the plasma membrane and the nucleus * Contains a **clear liquid** portion called **cytosol** and various particles * Particles are proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, lipids and inorganic ions * Also contains many organelles with distinct structure and function * Some of these organelles are visible only under an electron microscope * Granular and dense in animal cells and thin in plant cells

CYTOPLASM

* **Network of tubular and vesicular structure**s which are interconnected with one another * Some parts are connected to the nuclear membrane, while others are connected to the cell membrane * **Two types**: smooth(lacks ribosomes) and rough(studded with ribosomes) Functions: * Gives **internal support to the cytoplasm** * RER synthesize secretory proteins and membrane proteins * SER synthesize lipids for cell membrane * In liver cells SER detoxify drugs & poisons * In muscle cells SER store calcium ions

Endoplasmic Reticulum

* Discovered by **Camillo Golgi** * Formed by stacks of 5-8 membranous sacs * Sacs are usually flattened and are called the **cisternae** * Has two ends: **cis face** situated near the endoplasmic reticulum and **trans face** situated near the cell membrane Functions: * **Modifies**, sorts and packs materials synthesized in the cell * **Delivers synthesized materials** to various targets inside the cell and outside the cell * **Produces vacuoles** and secretory vesicles * **Forms plasma membrane and lysosomes**

GOLGI BODY

are **double membrane-bound organelles** found inside plants and some algae. They are responsible for activities related to making and **storing food**. They often contain different types of **pigments that can change the colour of the cell.**

**PLASTIDS** 1. Chromoplasts- red, orange, or yellow. 2. Chloroplast- green 3. Leucoplasts- colorless

a membrane-bound organelle found within a cell that primarily functions as a storage compartment for various substances like **water, nutrients, waste products, and pigments**

VACUOLES

*** Small, spherical, single membrane sac** * Found throughout the cytoplasm * Filled with **hydrolytic enzymes** * Occur in most animal cells and in few type of plant cells Functions: * **H****elp in digesting of large molecules** * **Protect cell by destroying foreign invaders like bacteria and viruses** * Degradation of worn out organelles * In dead cells perform **autolysis** **recycling and waste removal.**

LYSOSOMES

* Small, rod shaped organelles bounded by **two membranes** - inner and outer * **Outer membrane** is smooth and encloses the contents of mitochondria * **Inner membrane** is folded in the form of shelf like inward projections called cristae * **Inner cavity** is filled with matrix which contains many enzymes * Contain their own DNA which are responsible for many enzymatic actions Functions: * **Synthesize energy rich** compound ATP * ATP molecules provide energy for the vital activities of living cells

MITOCHONDRIA

plastids that produce and store pigments They are responsible for **different colours found in leaves, fruits, flowers and vegetables.**

Chromoplasts ex: carrot, mango, tomato

* Convert **light energy into chemical energy** in the form of food * Provide **green colour** to leaves, stems and vegetables

CHLOROPLASTS

are **colourless plastids** that store foods. They are found in storage organs such as fruits, tubers and seeds.

Leucoplasts

is a colourless **dense** fluid in Chloroplast

Stroma

contain **chlorophyll** molecules which are responsible for photosynthesis

Thylakoids

# * are **stacks of thylakoids** (membrane bound, flattened discs)

GRANA

* Form **spindle fibres** which help in the movement of chromosomes during cell division * Help in the formation of cilia and flagella

Centrosome

Microfilaments are rod shaped thin filaments made up of protein called

ACTIN

* **Determine the shape** of the cell * Give **structural strength** to the cell * Responsible for **cellular movements**

Cytoskeleton

Prokaryotic cell

1. Nucleus is **undeveloped** 2. Only **one** chromosome is present 3. Membrane bound organelles are **absent** 4. Size ranges from **0.5-5 µm** 5. Examples: **Bacteria and blue green algae**

are **hollow tubules** made up of protein called tubulin

Microtubules

Eukaryotic cell

1. Nucleus is well **developed** 2. **More than one** chromosomes are present 3. Membrane bound organelles are **present** 4. Size ranges from **5-100 µm** 5. Examples: All other organisms

1. Generally **small** in size 2. **Cell wall is absent** 3. Plastids are **absent** 4. **Vacuoles are smaller** in size and **less in numbe**r 5. **Centrioles are present**

ANIMAL CELL

1. **Large** in size 2. Cell wall is **present** 3. Plastids are **present** 4. Vacoules are larger in size and more in number 5. Centrioles are **absent**

PLANT CELL

A **group of tissues** with the **same function** forms an:

ORGAN

Group of organs

Organ system

Group of organ systems

Organism

Life begins as a single cell called a ____ after fertilization

zygote

MAJOR TYPES OF **ANIMAL TISSUE**

1. **EPITHELIAL TISSUE**- Covers or lines body cavity and forms glands 2. **CONNECTIVE TISSUE**- Binds different organs together and support the body 3. **MUSCLE TISSUE**- Movement 4. **NERVOUS TISSUE**- Senses and transmit impulses

**Specialized cel****l** of the same type that perform a **common function** in the body

TISSUE

* is a type of tissue made up of **flat, scale-like cells** that **lines surface**s in the body. It's found in the lungs, blood vessels, and other areas where molecules need to pass through membranes quickly. * **Single layer thin, large, flattened** cells * Have **irregular shape** and are closely packed in mosaic form * Cells are **attached to a basement membrane**

SQUAMOUS EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Types of **squamous epithelial tissue**

* **Simple squamous epithelium** A **single layer** of flat cells that lines blood and lymph vessels, the alveoli of the lungs, and other tissues. It's also called pavement epithelium because it looks like tiles. * **Stratified squamous epithelium** A **thick layer** of cells with large, flattened cells on the surface. It forms a watertight barrier that protects the skin.

* **Square cells**, closely packed in **single layer** * Cells attached to a basement membrane * FUNCTION: Absorbs molecules

CUBOIDAL EPITHELIAL TISSUE

a tissue that **lines organs** and ducts, and covers the intestinal tract. It's made up of elongated cells that are **shaped like columns** * Plays a role in **absorption of nutrients** * **Protects and supports** underlying tissues

COLUMNAR EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Where we can found the cuboidal epithelial cells?

* Lining of kidney tubules * Lining varous glands

Where we can found the columnar epithelial tissue?

Lining of **small intestine**, **stomach** and **oviducts**

4 TYPES OF TISSUE

1. **muscle**- move and contract 2. **epithelium** 3. **connective** 4. **nervous**

**appearing to be layered**, but actually consisting of a single layer of cells.

**Pseudostratified** The word "**pseudo**" means "**false**".

* This tissue **covers internal** and **external** body surfaces, lines body cavities and hollow organs, and is the main tissue in glands. * It has many functions, including protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, filtration, diffusion, and sensory reception. * It can be arranged in a single layer of cells (simple epithelium) or in layers of two or more cells deep (stratified epithelium).

EPITHELIUM

This is the **thinnest epithelial tissue**, consisting of a **single layer of flattened cells**, ideal for rapid diffusion and filtration, often found lining blood vessels and the lung alveoli.

SIMPLE SQUAMOUS

This type of epithelium can **change its appearance depending on whether it is stretched or relaxed**, appearing cuboidal when relaxed and squamous when stretched, primarily **found in the urinary bladder**.

Transitional epithelium

The two **cell types** found in the **nervous system**

1. **neurons**-specialized cells that send and **receive electrical signals** in the body. They are also known as **nerve cells.** * **cell body**-also called the **soma**, is the **main part of a neuron.** It is the metabolic and nutrient center of the neuron. * **axon**- a **long, slender projection** of a nerve cell (neuron) that carries electrical impulses, called action potentials, away from the cell body * **dendrite**-a **branched, finger**-like extension of a neuron that receives electrical signals from other neurons, 2. **glial cells**- non-neuronal cells that support and **protect neurons** in the brain and spinal cord. They are also known as **neuroglial cells or glia**.

a soft tissue that **contracts and moves**. It is made of muscle cells, also known as muscle fibers, that contain actin and myosin proteins.

MUSCLE

**posess fibers**, widely scattered cells, ground tissue (matrix) , analogy

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

This tissue is made up of a **single layer of cube-shaped cells,** commonly found in the lining of ducts and glands where secretion and absorption occur.

Simple cuboidal epithelium

TYPES OF **CONNECTIVE TISSUE**

1. **Areolar**- **loose irregular**, loose connective tissue, this tissue surrounds organs, blood vessels, and muscles. It also connects skin to muscle. 2. **Tendon and ligament**- dense regular 3. **Bone**- atypical, osteocytes (cells are found), osteoblasts (young cells), **provides structural support** for muscles and skin. 4. **Blood**- atypical 5. **Adipose**- membrane and cells only

TYPES OF MUSCLE

1. **smooth**- internal organs, non skeletal “viscera” involuntary, not striated, spindle, movement of internal organs or viscera, one per cell. Found in the **digestive tract and respiratory passages**, this muscle contracts involuntarily. 2. **skeletal**- voluntary, striated (cylindrical, long, slender, multi nuclei), attached to bones (darked light bands), movement of bones 3. **cardiac**- striated, involuntary, one or two nuclei per cell, intercalated disc, heart, branching, beating of heart

**NERVOUS** 2 FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES

1. **Irritability** refers to the ability of neurons (cells of the nervous system) to **detect and to respond to a stimulus. ** 2. **Conductivity** refers to the ability of neurons to **transmit signals** from one neuron to other neurons and from a neuron to muscles and glands.

a complex **network of neurons** that controls an animal's actions and sensory information. It's made up of the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

NERVOUS SYSTEM

TMB: LBB:

**Tendon Muscle to Bone** **Ligament Bone to Bone**

Four **general categories** of animal tissue

1. epithelial 2. muscle 3. nerve 4. connective

made up of groups of similar animal cells that work together to perform specific functions

Animal tissue

1. found on a body surface either **internal or external** 2. **tightly packed** cells 3. free border or free surface 4. rest on a basement membrane 5. **nonvascular**

EPITHELIAL

Naming or classifying epithelial tissue

First Name a. **Simple** b. **Stratified** c. **Pseudostratified** Second name a. **Cuboidal** b. **Squamous** c. **Columnar** EXAMPLE OF NAMING 1. **simple cuboidal**-single layer of cube-shaped cells 2. **stratified squamous**- multiple layers of flattened cells 3. **pseudostratified**-appears to be layered but is actually made up of a single layer of cells 4. **stratified cuboidal**-rare type of tissue that lines ducts in the body and is made of multiple layers of cube-shaped cells.

COMMON TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

1. possess **fibers** 2. widely **scattered** cells 3. ground tissue (matrix) 4. analogy

Types of **muscle tissue**

1. **skeletal** muscle a. multinucleate b. voluntary c. striated 2. **Smooth** a. Involuntary b. Visceral c. structure 3. **CARDIAC** a. One nucleus/cell b. Autorythmic c. Striated d. Intercalated disc

simply means "**relating to the skin**"

CUTANEOUS

1. contain glands 2. open to outside

Mucous Membrane

a connective tissue that **stores energy** and insulates the body. It's made up of **adipocytes**, or** fat cells**, and other cell types. The genetics of ____ contribute to obesity and other metabolic disorders.

adipose tissue

1. occur in **paired sheets** 2. **don’t open** to outside 3. **no** glandular tissue

SEROUS MEMBRANE

a type of **loose/ irregular** connective tissue that's found throughout the body. It's the most common connective tissue in vertebrates.

Areolar Connective Tissue

a fibrous tissue that connects muscle to bone or another structure, such as the eyeball. **DENSE, REGULAR**

TENDON

Ala

Alanine

Arg

Arginine

Gln

Glutamine

Asp

Aspartic acid

Asn

Asparagine

Cys

Cysteine

Gly

Glycine

Glu

Glutamic acid

LESSON 1 Flashcards

(240 cards)