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BIO 110 - Anatomy & Physiology > LO 10 > Flashcards

LO 10 Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the endocrine system

A
  1. Second greatest controlling system of the body
  2. Performs the same general functions as the nervous system, e.g: communication and control
  3. Functions carried out by specialized glands that secrete chemicals called hormones
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2
Q

What are the two types of glands in the body?

A
  1. Exocrine - Secrete hormones through ducts (e.g. sweat glands, salivary glands)
  2. Endocrine - ‘ductless’ (secret hormones directly into the blood); Produce/secrete hormones as needed (generally do not store hormones)
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3
Q

Describe the path of hormones in the endocrine system

A
  1. Endocrine glands secrete their hormones into intercellular spaces
  2. Hormones then diffuse into the blood which transports them throughout the body
  3. Individual hormones have specific ‘target’ cells that they affect
  4. Result is a slower, long-lasting result (as opposed to nervous system, which is fast)
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4
Q

What are the body functions that hormones regulate?

A
  1. Metabolism
  2. Growth & development
  3. Calcium and blood sugar balance
  4. Reproduction
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5
Q

What are the two major classes of hormones?

A
  1. Non-steroidal (amino acid/protein)
  2. Steroidal (lipid or fat-soluble)
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6
Q

How do steroidal and non-steroidal hormones interact with/affect their target cells?

A
  1. Non-steroidal 🡪 second messenger mechanism
  2. Steroidal 🡪 Hormone-receptor complex mechanism
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7
Q

Describe the second messenger system

A
  1. Non-steroidal hormones are protein hormones
  2. Proteins cannot penetrate cell membranes without the help of a carrier, or messenger
  3. The non-steroidal protein hormone is referred to as the ‘first messenger’ , which binds to specific receptors in the target cell’s membrane
  4. This leads to chemical reactions that activate substances in the cell called ‘second messengers’
  5. Second messengers are what affect the cell’s activities
  6. cAMP is an example of a second messenger
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8
Q

Describe the mechanism of steroid hormone action

A
  1. Small, lipid-soluble molecules
  2. Can easily pass through the target cell’s membrane
  3. Move through the cytoplasm to the nucleus
  4. Bind to receptors in the nucleus to create a ‘hormone-receptor complex’
  5. The complex acts on the cell’s DNA 🡪affects cellular activity e.g. production of new proteins or enzymes that will affect the target cell
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9
Q

Describe the regulation of hormone secretion

A
  1. Negative feedback - Mechanisms that reverse the direction of a change in a physiologic system. e.g. insulin and blood sugar balance
  2. Positive feedback - (Uncommon) mechanisms that amplify physiologic changes, e.g. oxytocin & labour contractions
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10
Q

Describe prostaglandins (tissue hormones)

A
  1. Powerful substances found in a wide variety of body tissues (not typical hormones!)
  2. Lipid/fatty-acid based
  3. Often produced in a tissue and diffuse only a short distance to act on cells in that tissue (not transported in the blood to distant tissues organs as ‘regular’ endocrine hormones are)
  4. Influence many body functions, e.g. respiration, BP, G-I secretions, inflammation, reproduction
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11
Q

What are the 10 glands of the endocrine system?

A
  1. Pituitary gland
  2. Hypothalamus
  3. Thyroid gland
  4. Parathyroid gland
  5. Adrenal glands
  6. Pancreas
  7. Gonads (testes/ovaries)
  8. Thymus gland
  9. Placenta (temporary)
  10. Pineal gland
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12
Q

Describe the pituitary gland

A
  1. Powerful, pea-sized gland
  2. Produces or stores the greatest variety of hormones
  3. Attached to the brain at the hypothalamus
  4. Composed of 2 glands - Anterior pituitary gland (adenohypophysis); Posterior pituitary gland (neurohypophysis)
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13
Q

Which hormones does the anterior pituitary gland secrete?

A
  1. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)*
  2. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)*
  3. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)*
  4. Luteinizing hormone (LH)*
  5. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
  6. Growth hormone (GH)
  7. Prolactin hormone (PH)
  • Tropic hormones: stimulate another endocrine gland to grow and secrete its hormones
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14
Q

Describe the function of TSH (Thyroid-stimulating hormone)

A
  1. Acts on thyroid gland
  2. Stimulates growth of the thyroid gland
  3. Stimulates thyroid to secrete thyroid hormone
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15
Q

Describe the function of ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone )

A
  1. Acts on adrenal cortex
  2. Stimulates growth of the adrenal cortex
  3. Stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete its hormones (mainly cortisol)
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16
Q

Describe the function of FSH (Follicle-stimulating hormone )

A
  1. Acts on male and female gonads (testes/ovaries)
  2. In females - Initiates growth of ovarian follicles each month in the ovary and stimulates one or more follicles to develop to the stage of maturity and ovulation; Stimulates estrogen secretion by developing follicles
  3. In males - stimulates sperm production
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17
Q

Describe the function of LH (Luteinizing hormone) – ‘ovulating hormone’

A
  1. Acts with FSH on male & female gonads
  2. Stimulates estrogen secretion and follicle growth to maturity
  3. Causes ovulation (rupture of mature follilce 🡪 🡪releases ripe ovum)
  4. Stimulates the formation of the corpus luteum in the ruptured follicle (luteinization)
  5. Stimulates progesterone secretion by corpus luteum
  6. Stimulates testes to secrete testosterone in the male
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18
Q

Describe the function of MSH (Melanocyte-stimulating hormone )

A
  1. Acts on the adrenal cortex and melanocytes (in skin)
  2. Regulates function of adrenal cortex
  3. Causes rapid increase in the synthesis and spread of melanin in the skin
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19
Q

Describe the function of GH (Growth Hormone)

A
  1. Acts on all organs/tissues (esp. muscle & bone)
  2. Accelerates protein anabolism 🡪 tissue growth
  3. Accelerates fat catabolism
    Slows glucose catabolism 🡪 🡪hyperglycemia
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20
Q

Describe the function of Prolactin or lactogenic hormone

A
  1. Stimulates breast development during pregnancy
  2. Stimulates secretion of breast milk after the delivery of the baby
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21
Q

The pituitary has a physical connection to the brain via the _________

A

Hypothalamus

Neurons run through the pituitary stalk connecting the two structures

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22
Q

Describe the function of the posterior pituitary gland

A
  1. Neuron cell bodies in the hypothalamus produce two hormones: ADH & oxytocin
  2. ADH & oxytocin travel to the posterior pituitary gland along the axons of the neurons that run from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary gland
  3. Release of these 2 hormones is controlled by nervous stimulation
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23
Q

Describe the function of Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

A
  1. Targets kidneys
  2. Accelerates water absorption from urine in the kidney tubules into the blood 🡪decreases urine secretion (🡪water retention)
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24
Q

Describe the function of Oxytocin

A
  1. Targets uterus and breast tissue
  2. Stimulates the pregnant uterus to contract, initiating labour 🡪 oxytocin!
  3. Causes glandular cells of the breast to release milk into ducts (‘milk let-down)
  4. Breastfeeding 🡪oxytocin!
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25
Q

Describe the function of the hypothalamus in relation to the endocrine system

A
  1. Actual production of ADH and oxytocin occurs in the hypothalamus
  2. It also produces releasing and inhibiting hormones
  3. These hormones travel directly to anterior pituitary gland through the blood via a specialized system of capillaries
  4. Either promote or inhibit release of anterior pituitary gland hormones
  5. Due to its combined nervous & endocrine functions, the hypothalamus controls many functions related to homeostasis (e.g. temp, appetite, thirst) = ‘Master Translator’!
26
Q

Describe the thyroid gland

A
  1. Butterfly/bow-tie shaped gland
  2. In the front of the neck
  3. Main functions - Cellular metabolism; Blood calcium levels
  4. Unlike other glands, stores considerable amounts of its hormones in follicles
27
Q

List the thyroid gland hormones

A
  1. Thyroxine (T4)
  2. Triiodothyronine (T3)
  3. Calcitonin
28
Q

Describe Thyroxine (T4)

A
  1. More abundant than T3
  2. Contains 4 iodine atoms
  3. To be produced in adequate amounts, diet must contain sufficient iodine (added to table salt)
  4. Stimulates cellular metabolism
29
Q

Describe Triiodothyronine (T3)

A
  1. More potent than T4
  2. Considered to be the principal thyroid hormone
  3. Stimulates cellular metabolism
30
Q

Describe Calcitonin

A
  1. Decreases the blood calcium concentration by inhibiting breakdown of bone, which would release calcium into the blood
  2. Maintains homeostasis of blood calcium by preventing hypercalcemia
31
Q

When do goitres occur?

A

When there are inadequate levels of thyroid hormones (hypothyroidism)

32
Q

Describe Grave’s disease

A
  1. Increased levels of thyroid hormones - hyperthyroidism
  2. Autoimmune disease – immune system ‘attacks’ thyroid, causing it to over-produce thyroxine
  3. Eyes bulge out
33
Q

Where is the Parathyroid Gland?

A

4 small glands found on back of thyroid

34
Q

Describe the function of Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

A
  1. Increases blood calcium concentration by increasing the breakdown of bone 🡪release of calcium into the blood
  2. Has opposite effect of calcitonin
35
Q

Describe the adrenal glands

A
  1. One on each kidney
  2. Made up of two ‘separate’ glands - Adrenal cortex (outer part) secretes corticoids; Adrenal medulla (inner part) secretes stress hormones (adrenaline & noradrenaline)
36
Q

Describe the 3 layers of the adrenal cortex and the hormones they secrete

A
  1. Outer Layer: 🡪mineralocorticoids
  2. Middle Layer: 🡪glucocorticoids
  3. Inner Layer: 🡪 gonadocorticoids
37
Q

Describe the function of Mineralocorticoids (MCs)

A
  1. Help control the amount of certain mineral salts/electrolytes in the blood (mainly NaCl)
  2. Aldosterone (main MC) targets kidney 🡪increase the amount of sodium and decrease the amount of potassium in the blood (Does this by influencing kidney tubules )
  3. ↑ their reabsorption of sodium back into the blood, wherever salt goes, water follows behind
  4. ↑ their secretion of potassium into the urine
  5. Net effect - speeds up kidney reabsorption of water
38
Q

Describe the function of Glucocorticoids (GCs)

A
  1. Help maintain normal blood glucose concentration by increasing gluconeogenesis of liver cells
  2. gluco = sugar
  3. neo = new (e.g. ‘new’ source of sugar: amino or fatty acids)
  4. genesis = creation of/origin of
39
Q

Describe the function of Gonadocorticoids

A
  1. Androgens = ‘male’ sex hormones
  2. Similar to testosterone
  3. Secreted in small amounts in both genders
  4. Contribute to the onset of puberty in both genders
  5. Females - stimulate female sexual drive
  6. Males - physiologically insignificant as they are overshadowed by the production of testosterone by the testes
40
Q

Describe the function of Epinephrine (adrenaline) and Norepinephrine

A
  1. Help the body resist stress by intensifying and prolonging the effects of Sympathetic NS stimulation
  2. Very fast acting – nerve impulses from SNS stimulate the medulla – literally squirts out hormones into blood!
  3. An increased epinephrine secretion is the first endocrine response to stress
    ‘fight-or-flight’ responses (resist or avoid stress)
41
Q

Show how the stress response shows the close relationship between the nervous and endocrine systems

A

Stress 🡪 hypothalamus 🡪 ant. pituitary gland 🡪 ACTH 🡪 adrenal cortex 🡪 glucocorticoids

Stress 🡪 hypothalamus 🡪 sympathetic nervous system 🡪 adrenal medulla 🡪 hormones

42
Q

Describe Cushing Syndrome

A
  1. Abnormally large amounts of glucocorticoids are produced
  2. Cause is often tumours in the middle zone of the adrenal cortex
  3. More common in women
  4. Signs and symptoms include - ‘Moon face’ & ‘buffalo hump’ due to redistribution of fat in the body; Elevated blood sugar; Frequent infections
43
Q

Describe Addison disease

A
  1. Deficiency of adrenal cortex hormones/glucocorticoids
  2. Signs and symptoms include - Muscle weakness; Low blood sugar; Nausea; Loss of appetite; Weight loss
44
Q

Describe the structure of pancreatic islets

A
  1. Also called islets of Langerhans
  2. Microscopic clumps of cells scattered among exocrine cells (digestive function) of pancreas
  3. Contain alpha and beta cells
45
Q

List the hormones secreted by the pancreas

A
  1. Glucagon – secreted by alpha cells (A cells)
  2. Insulin – secreted by beta cells (B cells)
  • They have opposite effects
46
Q

Describe the function of Glucagon

A
  1. Increases blood glucose by accelerating liver glycogenolysis (glycogen stored in liver 🡪 glucose to the blood)
47
Q

Describe the function of Insulin

A
  1. Decreases blood glucose by accelerating the movement of glucose out of the blood 🡪 cells, which increases glucose metabolism
  2. It is the only hormone that can lower blood sugar
48
Q

Describe type 1 diabetes (insulin-dependent)

A
  1. Islets don’t secrete enough insulin 🡪 increased blood glucose level
49
Q

Describe type 2 diabetes (non-insulin-dependent)

A
  1. Combo of decreased insulin production and ‘insulin resistance’ 🡪increased blood glucose level
50
Q

“Normal” blood glucose is ________mg per 100ml of blood

A

70-100

51
Q

What are the two structures in the ovaries that secrete hormones?

A
  1. Ovarial follicles - Little pockets in which egg cells, or ova, develop; Secrete estrogen, the “feminizing hormone”
  2. Corpus luteum - Primarily secretes progesterone; also secretes some estrogen
52
Q

Describe the effects of estrogen

A
  1. Development & maturation of breasts & external genitals
  2. Development of adult female body contours
  3. Initiation of menstrual cycle
53
Q

What do the testes do?

A
  1. Produce the male sex cells = sperm
  2. Secrete the male hormone testosterone
54
Q

Describe the effects of testosterone

A
  1. Maturation of external genitals
  2. Beard growth
  3. Voice changes at puberty
  4. Development of musculature and body contours typical of the male
55
Q

Describe the thymus

A
  1. Located in mediastinum
  2. Cortex and medulla layers made primarily of WBCs
  3. Secretes the hormone thymosin

Functions:
1. Actually a group of several hormones
2. Plays an important role in the development and function of the body’s immune system

56
Q

Describe the placenta

A
  1. The placenta is a temporary endocrine gland (pregnancy) that secretes Estrogen, Progesterone, and:

Chorionic gonadotropins
1. tropic hormones secreted by cells of the chorion (outer-most membrane surrounding fetus in the uterus)
2. Promotes maintenance of corpus luteum during early pregnancy, causing it to secrete progesterone which nourishes the uterine wall with a thick lining of blood vessels to sustain the fetus
3. Detected early in pregnancy in urine (pregnancy tests)

57
Q

Describe the pineal gland

A
  1. Small, cone-shaped gland located in the diencephalon
  2. Glandular tissue predominates in children and young adults; becomes fibrous and calcified with age
  3. Called the ‘third eye’ because its influence on secretory activity is related to the amount of light entering the eyes
58
Q

Describe the function of the pineal gland

A
  1. The pineal gland secretes the hormone melatonin
  2. Melatonin inhibits ovarian activity (thought to be involved in the regulation and onset of puberty and the onset of the menstrual cycle)
  3. Regulates the body’s internal clock – melatonin levels increase with darkness; decrease with light
59
Q

Describe the function of Ghrelin

A
  1. Secreted by cells in stomach lining
  2. Affects appetite
60
Q

Describe the function of Leptin

A
  1. Secreted by fat-storing cells
  2. Affects appetite
61
Q

Describe the function of Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH)

A
  1. Secreted by atrial wall of the heart
  2. Targets kidneys; regulates fluid & electrolyte balance

BIO 110 - Anatomy & Physiology (16 decks)

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