major thinkers test 2

Question 1

Robert P. George

Answer 1

Beliefs:

• Religion is a fundamental human good and essential for flourishing—individually and socially.
• Natural Law includes moral absolutes rooted in reason, not relativism.
• Supports freedom of religion, but not freedom from religion.
• Strongly anti-utilitarian—you cannot justify actions based solely on the greatest good for the greatest number.
• Believes in order of affection: one has the highest obligations to those closest to them.
• Natural law permits lethal force in self-defense (individual and national), but not intentional killing of noncombatants or targeting civilians.
• Supports biotech to fix what’s broken, not for enhancement or unnatural augmentation.

Similarities/Differences:

• Aligns with John Finnis on the core of Natural Law (peace, justice, harmony).
• Stronger religious emphasis than Finnis.
• Less harsh than Codevilla, more open to coexistence.

Question 2

John Finnis

Answer 2

Beliefs:

• War is justified only if its ultimate purpose is peace (not revenge or power).
• A just war requires right intent, competent authority, and reasonable chance of success.
• Concordia (harmony) is the goal; not domination or humiliation.
• Morality of war depends on intent and motive (e.g., stopping a killer vs. seeking revenge).
• Strong on the common good—not just national self-interest.
• War must avoid cruelty, unnecessary harm, and especially targeting civilians.

Similarities/Differences:

• Very close to George, though more focused on war ethics.
• Less absolutist than Codevilla.
• Compared to Rawls, includes moral and metaphysical claims.

Question 3

Angelo Codevilla

Answer 3

Beliefs:

• Natural law is like physics—immutable. Violate it, and there will be consequences.
• 10 Commandments = eternal moral code.
• War should only be fought to restore honor, not for ideology or humanitarian aims.
• Critical of US wars post-WWI, believes they violate just war theory.
• Rejects nation-building; believes every society must solve its own problems.
• Against fighting genocides abroad—violates order of affection.

Similarities/Differences:

• Agrees with George on the unchangeability of moral law.
• Far more critical and realist than Finnis—more about honor and national integrity.
• Directly conflicts with Rawls and Mill on liberal interventionism and moral relativism.

Question 4

John Rawls

Answer 4

Beliefs:

• Public debates in a pluralist society must exclude metaphysical/religious beliefs.
• Only neutral principles (like fairness) should guide public policy.
• If you can’t bring your deepest convictions into the public square, you’re not fully free.

Similarities/Differences:

• Conflicts with George and Finnis, who believe religious conviction is vital to public morality.
• More individualist than natural law theorists.
• Wants a thinner, neutral public space; Natural Law wants a richer moral debate.

Question 5

John Stuart Mill

Answer 5

Beliefs:

• Only limit to liberty is physical harm to others.
• Utility (usefulness) is the basis of morality.
• Believed in limitless moral progress via environmental improvement (blank slate theory).
• Rights are not absolute—only justified if they promote overall utility.

Similarities/Differences:

• Strongly opposed to Natural Law: doesn’t believe in objective moral duties or eternal truths.
• Sees religion and tradition as potentially limiting progress.
• Natural Law sees this as dangerous—leads to dehumanization (e.g., Apocalypto example).

Question 6

John Henry Newman

Answer 6

Beliefs:

• We are born inclined toward evil, not neutral.
• True progress is moral, not just technical.
• Conscience is the internal voice of duty—limits our actions.
• Religious communities provide support against state overreach.

Similarities/Differences:

• Agrees with George that conscience and faith are essential to moral life.
• More theological than Rawls, shares George’s opposition to secularism.
• Sees autonomy as constrained by duty, unlike Mill.