Mcat Flashcards

Question

Three germ layers and their responding certain tissue types in the body?

Answer 1

Ectoderm - Nervous system, epidermis, hair. Mesoderm- connecting tissues including bones, muscles, tendons. Blood cells and several organs heart, kidney, and gonads. Endoderms: lining of digestive tube and associated organs.

Answer 2

Increasing the water permeability of the walls of the distal tubule and collecting duct

Answer 3

Urethra: The urethra is a tubular structure that carries the urine from the urinary bladder to the outside. ureters: carry the urine away from kidneys to the urinary bladder, which is a temporary reservoir for the urine.

Answer 4

Ecell=Ered - Eox Red cat, An Ox Higher in the table better the reduction potential so better OA. Stoichiometry doesn’t matter.

Answer 5

It is used to generate alpha amino acids from aldehyde using ammonium chloride NH4Cl and KCN. The intermediate is planar (no stereocenters), nucleophilic addition can occur from either from above or below the plane. So it produces mixture of L and D amino acids.

Answer 6

Based on boiling point. The mobile phase is inert gas with low boiling point eg N2, He or Ar. Higher boiling point molecules more readily reenter the liquid phase( stationary), moves slower through the column.

Answer 7

An acid base extraction. The acid and base components in the mixture are initially in the organic layer but can enter the aqueous phase by converting into ionic salt by deprotonation or protonation via extraction with aqueous base or acid.

Answer 8

Solubility. Molecules will dissolve in solvents of similar polarity.

Answer 9

OH board peak at ~3300 NH Sharp peak at ~3300 CCOOH - broad peak at ~3000 And 1750 C=O sharp peak at ~1750

Answer 10

Carbon chain that includes carbonyl carbon stems from carboxylic acid and carbon chain bonded to oxygen atom stems from the alcohol.

Answer 11

Degree of carbon substitution and proximity to electronegative atoms. Protons in alkyl group are among the most shielded and normally appear 0.9-1.4 ppm. (Downfield, de shielded), (upfield, shielded). CH3

Answer 12

Mass of the molecules and molecular fragments. It creates molecular ion, a radical cation with mass to charge ratio (m/z). Ionized material enters a magnetic field, which curves the path of the particles by their m/z. Only cations reaches the detector.

Answer 13

It’s provides the ability to molecular structure through analysis of vibrational and rotational molecular motion. The wave number of an IR absorption is proportional to the frequency of the motion. Highest wave number stretching vibration occurs for the bond with lightest combined mass of atoms.

Answer 14

How quickly the reactant molecules are consumes and the product molecules produced. (E.g change in the species concentrations per unit time)

Answer 15

Spontaneity (thermodynamic favorability) of the process.

Answer 16

Molecular disorder of the system. Solids are low entropy and gasses have higher disorder

Answer 17

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of the substance by 1•C

Answer 18

Delta H= q reaction/moles

Answer 19

A negative change in enthalpy delta H indicates an exothermic rxn that releases heat to the surroundings and raised temperature.

Answer 20

Change in total energy of the a system. Enthalpy in is bond breakage which is positive. enthalpy out is bond formation which is negative. Total enthalpy is Sum of enthalpies of all bonds broken and formed. When pressure is not changed, delta H equals to amount of heat is absorbed or released by a reaction.

Answer 21

It states that if a reaction can be performed in more than one step, the heat of the overall rxn(overall enthalpy) is equal to the sum of the enthalpy changes from each step.

Answer 22

Temperature=273K or 0C Pressure=1atm Gas occupies a volume of 22.4 L for every 1 mole of gas molecules.

Answer 23

p=qd The magnitude of a dipole moment across a polar covalent bond is equal to the magnitude of partial charge multiplied by the bond length separating the charges the difference in EN between two covalently bonded atoms is indicative of the magnitude the partial charge.

Answer 24

F=qvB Magnetic field is perpendicular to the particle’s velocity. As a result charge’s trajectory is forced into a curved, - charges and +charges bend opposite direction.

Answer 25

Is the species that the acid or base becomes after losing or gaining one protons. A base is converted into its conjugate acid when the base accepts a proton. Acid is converted into its conjugate bases when the acid donates a proton.

Answer 26

Society=an organism, each part of society works to maintain dynamic equilibrium(homeostasis). It is macro perspective. Theorists are Emile Durkheim, Talcott parsons.

Answer 27

Society=struggle for limited resources. I qualify based on social class. Macro perspective. Theorists are Karl Mark, Max Weber

Answer 28

Social acorns define what is real. Knowledge about world based on interactions. Perspective is macro or micro

Answer 29

Meaning and value attached to symbols. Individual interactions based on these symbols. Micro perspective. Theorists are Charles Cooley, George Herbert Mead.

Answer 30

Individual behaviors and interacts attempt to maximize personal gain and minimize personal cost. Micro perspective

Answer 31

Examines gender inequality in society. Perspective is macro or micro.

Answer 32

It states that the volume occupied by a gas is directly proportional it’s number of moles if the temperature and pressure are constant. The gas with more moles will occupies the larger volume. V/n=constant

Answer 33

1. Ion dipole interactions occur between the partial charge of a permanent dipole and the full charge of an ion. 2. Dipole induced dipole i reactions occur when a permanent dipole induces a weak temporary dipole in a non polar bond or atom. 3. Dipole dipole interactions occur between the partial charges of two permanent dipoles.

Answer 34

1. Separation of bio molecules by electrophoresis to be separated by size. 2. The separated biomolecules are transferred from gel to membrane 3. The molecules are exposed to probes that specifically bind to the target molecule. 4. The probe is visualized.

Answer 35

Antibody binding site within a protein.

Answer 36

TCA cycle oxidizes acetyl CoA to produce NADH and FADH2 which then feed into the ETC. Succinate dehydrogenase aka complex II of ETC, oxidizes succinate to fumarate to make FADH2.

Answer 37

By glycolysis to continue in the absence of Oxygen. Product of lactate allows regeneration of NAD+ which is necessary for glycolysis. Fermentation does that by reacting pyruvate and NADH together to produce lactate.

Answer 38

It is programmed, non inflammatory, resulting in cell death. When cells get damaged (eg increased buildup of ROS (reactive oxygen species), apoptosis activated and degradation of cellular components starts. Cell fragments gets eaten by macrophages (phagocytosis)

Answer 39

Passive accidental cell death resulting from environmental perturbations with uncontrolled release of inflammatory cellular contents.

Answer 40

TMS standard=0 Sp3 0-2 SP 2-3 Sp2 3-5 Aromatic carbon 6-9 Aldehyde 9-10 Carboxylic acid 10-13

Answer 41

It uses infrared light source at various frequencies. This allows to determine the frequencies that cause particular covalent bonds to vibrate and stretch.

Answer 42

1. At rest neuron maintains a potential difference know as RMP, ~-70mV. INK- more negative inside the cell and more K inside. This is maintained by Na/K pump, K leaks channels, and passive diffusion of K. 2. When stimulus causes Na pump to open, 3 Na+ rush into the cell, causing depolarization. When it is reaches threshold, AP initiated. 3. If threshold is reached. Na keep remain open, causes overshoot to almost positive, that is when Na closes 4. K channels open 5. K rushes out of neuron resulting repolarization 6. Because K close slower, the membrane potential briefly becomes more -, hyper polarization 7. K closes, RMP restored.

Answer 43

Neuroglia are glial cells. They provide support functions to neurons and the nervous system.

Answer 44

They are glial cells. 1. Oligodendrocytes- form myelin sheaths around the axons to reduce leakage, decrease capacitance and increase action potential propagation speed along the axon in central nervous system. 2. Ependymal cells- line compartments and produce cerebrospinal fluids. 3. Microglia- serve as immune cells which phagocytize pathogens, damaged cells, and waste materials. 4. Astrocytes- contact blood vessels, regulating blood flow to coordinate synaptic activity and chemical changes. Also important for maintaining extracellulair fluid, ion, pH and neurotransmitter homeostasis. Also provide nutrients for neuron function, development, maintainance, communication with other glial cells

Answer 45

Schwann cells- form myelin sheath around the axons to increase speed of conduction. Satellite cells- provide structural support and supply nutrients to neurons

Answer 46

Two species exhibit different mating behaviors.

Answer 47

F1 offspring are viable and fertile but F2 hybrid offspring are unviable or sterile.

Answer 48

Prezygotic barriers Post zygotic barriers

Answer 49

1. Temporal isolation - May reproduce different times 2. Ecological isolation 3. Behavioral isolation 4. Mechanical isolation 5. Gametic isolation

Answer 50

Hybrid sterility Hybrid inviability Hybrid breakdown

Answer 51

Impaired processing (eg slower response or reduced accuracy) that occurs when a stimulus is initially ignored and then later attended. Eg first bei g asked to pick a red pen and ignore other colors pens, then asked to pick a blue pen, response time is slower.

Answer 52

Tendency to perceive an event as being likely after it has occurred, even if it was unlikely. Eg after getting a minor car accident, an individual states that she just know she should have stayed home

Answer 53

Signaling molecules that regulate immune cell functions. Helper T cells produce cytokines that function to activate other immune cells.

Answer 54

They bind forging antigens displayed by major histocompatibility complex proteins found on the surfaces of other cells (eg other immune cells, infected cells) Types: Helper T cells which produce cytokines Cytotoxic T cells which induce apoptosis in cells of infected by pathogens

Answer 55

Follicular, ovulation and luteal phase. In the follicular phase menses and proliferative phase happens, in luteal phase secretory phase happens.

Answer 56

Day 1-13, follicle stimulating hormone FSH peaks during first week, stimulates the development of several ovarian follicles. Subsequently LH begins to surge, one follicle become dominant. Estrogen also increases.

Answer 57

Day 14, soon after LH surge, ovarian follicle matures and an oocyte is released

Answer 58

Day 15-28 FSH and LH cause follicle to be converted into the corpus luteum which produces progesterone. Progesterone stimulates the thickening of the endometrium to make it receptive to embryo implantation and surpasses FSH and LH. If fertilization doesn’t occur corpus lutheum degenerate and progesterone and estrogen level decline sharply. If pregnancy occurs, corpus luteum is still present and FSH and LH remain suppressed. Estrogen and progesterone levels will be high.

Answer 59

Is the degree to which chiral molecules rotate plane polarized light, which unique to each chiral molecules. Clockwise rotations are + and counter-clockwise ones -. Enantiomers are nonsuperimposable mirror images and their specific rotations are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.

Answer 60

Testes contain specialized coiled structure called seminiferous tubules which are locations of spermatogenesis. Steps: 1. Spermatogonia undergo mitotic division forming 2 daughter cells. One of them remains a spermatogonium while other becomes a primary spermatocyte and begins meiosis. Meiosis 1 results in 2 secondary spermatocytes. 2. Completion of meiosis 2 yields 4 spermatids. 3. Spermatids undergo several changes eg cytoplasm loss, acrosome formations tail development ultimately into spermatozoa. 4. Spermatozoa migrate to the epididymis where they continue maturation and acquire motility.

Answer 61

Seminiferous tubules also contain specialized nurse cell called Sertoli cells which are responsible for providing nutrients to sperm as well as regulating cell development.

Answer 62

Secrets testosterone

Answer 63

Is the intramolecular reaction between an alcohol and carboxylic acid that creates a cyclic ester( lactone).

Answer 64

Is an intramolecular condensation reaction between an amine and a carboxylic acid that comes a cyclic amide. (Lactam)

Answer 65

Primary structures are the sequence of amino acids from N terminus to C terminus and is formed by peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids. It can only disrupted bh events that alter sequence. Those include cleavage of peptide bonds by proteases and changes in amino acid sequence by mutations in DNA that encodes the protein of interest

Answer 66

The ammonia that enters the cycle is derived from the amino group of amino acid backbones (deamination) and from amide side chains of glutamine and asparagine (deamidation)

Answer 67

By transamination and deamination. (Removal of amine to produce a ketone), producing alpha keto acids in process.

Answer 68

Proline, it has pyrrolidine side chain, only amino acid in which backbone amino group is secondary amine.

Answer 69

1. Gabriel synthesis N-phthalimidomalonic ester goes under base (taking the H) and then alkyl halide introduced. Alkyl group is the side chain of the amino acid that is being created. Then it is hydrolyzed and heated to take the 1 one of the carboxylic group (CO2). The rest is amino acid. 2. Skrecker synthesis elegant way NH3, KCN, aldehyde or ketone needed.

Answer 70

2. That is 10 carbons in total.

Answer 71

Steroids made out of terpenes that form a backbone structure containing four fused hydrocarbon rings. 3 6membered rings and 1 5 membered rings.

Answer 72

Because they have the same chemical and physical properties.

Answer 73

1. By adding resolving agent. This make it diastereomers which have different properties and can be separated 2. Separation technique that uses chiral media. Eg: chiral column chromatography

Answer 74

It is used for separating enantiomers. Uses chiral stationary phase, which interacts with one enantiomers either R or S more strongly, causing that enantiomer to move slower through the column while other enantiomer with weaker interaction moves through the column more quickly

Answer 75

E- high priority groups on opposite side Z- high priority groups same side

Answer 76

0th order with regard with the nucleophile and the rate of reaction is independent of the nucleophile identity.

Answer 77

Glands in which the product is secreted through a duct onto the surface of the body or onto the epithelial lining of a cavity inside the body. Eg tears and bile

Answer 78

All of them endoderm ectoderm and mesoderm

Answer 79

Aka malonic ester synthesis, is a method used to make primary amines, including alpha amino acids without overalkylation of the amine. The amine is generated from Potassium phthalimide, a protected form of ammonia that prevents multiple alkylations due to the steric hindrance of the phthalimide group. Synthesis beging with Sn2 rxn, K phthalimide is nucleophile that attacks an alkyl halide.

Answer 80

By convention, L amino acids are drawn with hydrogen behind the plane of the back bone(dashed line) whereas D amino acids are drawn with hydrogen in front of the plane (solid line)

Answer 81

Side chain of cysteine has higher priority than the CO2H group so cysteine has an R configuration but all other natural amino acids are S.

Answer 82

Hemiacetel acetal Hemiketal ketal

Answer 83

Mesylate, tosylate, tert-butyl ether, tert butyl dimethyl silyl TBDMS.

Answer 84

Tosylate, tert-butyl oxycarbonyl BOC

Answer 85

Zwitterions, N terminus +1 (NH3+) and C terminus is -1 (COO-). Carboxylic acid is deprotonated and amino group is protonated. Pka COOH 2 Pka NH3 9

Answer 86

Rotational force that makes object spin about a pivot point. By convention, torques that cause an object to spin counterclockwise are positive and clockwise are negative. When object is in static equilibrium the net torque is 0. Torque=rFsin@

Answer 87

Depolarization of a neuron cell membrane promotes axiom potential initiation ( eg more positive membrane potential). Hyper polarization inhibits AP (eg more negative membrane potential) effux of K out or influx of Cl in

Answer 88

Mixture of gases, the total pressure Ptotal is equal to the sum of partial pressure of Pi of each constituent gas at constant volume and temperature. The partial pressure of each gas in the mixture depends only on the relative number of moles of each species and not the identity of the gas.

Answer 89

Extreme concern regarding one or more physical symptoms eg fatigue, pain

Answer 90

Neurological symptoms eg paralysis, blindness, that are not explainable by a medical condition

Answer 91

Preoccupation with having or acquiring a serious disease eg HIV, cancer

Answer 92

Symptoms or illnesses are intentionally fabricated without obvious external gain (eg disability benefits)

Answer 93

Are uncontrolled variables that have an effect on the indecent and/ or dependent variable.

Answer 94

1. Detection of depolarization by a receptor located in sarcolemmal tubes (called t tubules) 2. In response Ca2+ released from sarcoplasmic reticulum 3. Ca2+ binds to troponin, which enables binding of myosin head to actin by moving tropomyosin 4. Each myosin is bound to ADP and p from previous contraction. Myosin head releases those phosphates. This enables myosin to pull on the actin filament. 5. As units move, they release ADP 6. ATP halts the gliding movement. Severing the bond between myosin and actin 7. ATP decomposed into ADP and phosphate and the energy released will be stored in myosin heads

Answer 95

1. Slow oxidative type 1 Slow. Endurance activity, fatigue resistant, aerobic respiration, plenty of mitochondria, myoglobin, capillaries. Red 2. Fast oxidative glycolytic type 2A Medium. Moderate endurance activity. Anaerobic glycolysis and aerobic respiration. Plentiful to moderately plentiful. Intermediate appearance. 3. Fast glycolytic type 2X Fast. Explosive movement, easily fatigued, anaerobic glycolysis. Few mitochondria capillaries and myoglobin. White

Answer 96

Language functions in the brain tend to be lateralized to the left hemisphere. 2 important center are broca-language production, wernicke - language comprehension.

Answer 97

Positron emission tomography is a functional imaging technique that measure the emission of positrons that result from the metabolism of radioactive tracer. Radiolabeled form of glucose is used.

Answer 98

It binds only to enzyme-substrate complex and decreases both Vmax and Km values by same factor resulting in an unchanged Vmax/Km ratio. Because it binds to ES complex, it depletes ES levels by ESI complexes. this shifts the equilibrium such that additional free enzyme is induced to substrate, causing appearant decrease in Km.

Answer 99

Enhance enzyme activity by increasing the turnover number kcat (=Vmax/Total enzyme). This helps to achieve higher Vmax by decreasing Michaelis constant (Km) to reach maximum rate at lower substrate concentration or increased catalytic efficiency (=kcat/Km).

Answer 100

Pitch is how humans perceive sound frequency. Higher the frequency higher the pitch. This is the Doppler effect. It describes a change in frequency of a wave that is the result of a relative motion between a wave source and its observer.

Answer 101

Simple harmonic motion quantifies how many cycles occur in 1 second.

Answer 102

Waves with displacement perpendicular to the axis of motion. Eg water wave in water, electromagnetic waves

Answer 103

Waves with displacement parallel to the direction of motion. Eg sound waves

Answer 104

1. Inverted, Real image when the reflected object is located outside the focal length 2. Upright virtual images are formed when object is placed inside the focal length.

Answer 105

Always form upright virtual image.

Answer 106

Reflected light rays converge to form an image.

Answer 107

Is the diffusion of solvent across semi permeable membrane from a solution of lower solute concentration into a solution of higher solute concentration until the solution concentration equalize.

Answer 108

During osmosis, solvent diffusion imparts an osmotic pressure that is calculated by п=iMRT

Answer 109

It is 1 because it doesn’t dissociate

Answer 110

Hydrostatic pressure is the force that pushes the fluid out of blood capillaries whereas oncotic pressure is the force that pushes the fluid into the blood capillaries.

Answer 111

Force exerted by the fluid inside the blood capillaries against the capillary wall. It aids the movement of fluid from the blood capillaries to the interstitial fluid

Answer 112

is the carbon derived from the carbonyl carbon (the ketone or aldehyde functional group) of the open-chain form of the carbohydrate molecule and is a stereocenter. An important feature is the direction of the OH group attached to the anomeric carbon, indicating that it is either alpha or beta.

Answer 113

L or D based on the configuration of the highest numbered chiral carbon (anomeric carbon is assigned the lowest number possible). R configuration at the highest numbered stereo center designates a D sugar and S configuration designates an L sugar. Sugar also classified as alpha and beta. Alpha- anomeric carbon is on the opposite side of the ring as the highest chiral center Beta is same side

Answer 114

In cytosol.

Answer 115

It occurs in the mitochondria. Since long chain fatty acids are made in cytosol of the cell, it needs to move to mitochondria by transport and activation.

Answer 116

In fatty acid synthesis and it inhibits long chain fatty acid transport to the mitochondria

Answer 117

Nucleophiles donate electrons to electrophiles in nucleophilic substation. There are several factors that contribute to nucleophilicity, including charge and EN. Stronger the EN, less nucleophilicity it is. Strong EN less likely to donate the electron and it is more stable to hold on to their electrons vs less EN atoms.

Answer 118

Thermodynamic: more substituted, requiring small base, higher activation energy, higher rxn temp, forms more stable products Kinetic: opposite of thermodynamic

Answer 119

Electron density is donated through sigma bonds. Carbocations are stabilized by electrons donating group because they donate electrons to positively charged carbon, they are destabilized by electron withdrawing groups because they will electrons away from the carbocation, creating two adjacent positive charge, making it unstable.

Answer 120

Magnitude of the electric force F between two charged objects is directly proportional to the products of each object’s charge magnitude Q1 Q2 and inversely proportional to the square of the charge’s separation distance r. F=|Q1||Q2|/r2 Increasing the charge on one object increases the electrostatic force on the other object.

Answer 121

Is a type of attribution bias in which a person takes credit for a success ( I did well on the test because I am smart) or blames a failure on an external factor (test was unfair). This bias serves to protect self esteem, one’s overall opinion of self worth.

Answer 122

1. Trail and error 2. Algorithms 3. Heuristics - strategy or shortcut yielding approx results, fast, potentially error prone 4. Insight- solution occurs in an Aha moment, typically after a mental break from the problem. Valuable, occurs infrequently

Answer 123

Is a belief about something (which may or May not be true) that influences behavior such that the belief actually comes true. Beliefs (I am bad at chemistry) impact expectations (I won’t do well on the chemistry test) which then influence behavior (not studying). The result (failing the test) then reinforce the belief.

Answer 124

Is a type of cognitive bias in which person steadfastly holds a belief even when confronting strong evidence to the contrary.

Answer 125

Incentive theory suggests that behavior is primarily motivated by extrinsic( external) rewards rather than internal reward or biological drives. Eg, studying hard to get good grade not because he/she interested in the subject

Answer 126

In times of stress, SNS mobilizes the body’s resources to deliver blood toward the vital organs and away from extremities. One way is increase blood pressure by releasing neurotransmitter norepinephrine to directly stimulate the constriction of vascular smooth muscle. SNS also can increase BP by activating the renin-angiotensin aldosterone system in the kidneys. Vasoconstriction increase blood presssure by decreasing the volume inside blood vessels. When this volume is lowered, the force of blood flow is raised, thereby increasing blood pressure.

Answer 127

Vasoconstriction: small blood vessel diameter, lower blood flow, increased blood pressure Vasodilation: larger blood vessels diameter, higher blood flow, lower blood pressure.

Answer 128

FA can be oxidized to form acetyl-CoA and those with an even number of carbons produce half as many acetyl CoA molecules as they have carbons. FA with odd number of carbons produce propionyl-CoA in addition to the acetyl CoA. Unsaturated FA require isomerization reactions to convert cis bonds to trans bonds whereas saturated FA don’t. PS. Carboxylic acid in the beginning of FA is carbon 1 and includes in the carbon tails

Answer 129

Thermodynamically stable bond forms during spontaneous reactions (delta G is -, no energy needed). In contrast, thermodynamically unstable bonds forms during nonspontaneous reactions. Those require energy.

Answer 130

Spontaneous reactions don’t necessarily proceed quickly. The rate of reaction is described by activation energy. Bonds that break in slow reactions said to be kinetically stable.

Answer 131

Peptide bonds are formed through a dehydration reaction in which the carboxyl group of one amino acid loses a hydroxyl group and the amino group of another loses a hydrogen atom. H2O is released as a byproduct

Answer 132

It is an aldose that can be derived from the oxidation of glycerol. It contains an aldehyde and two hydroxyl groups.

Answer 133

Frequency shift occurs when there is relative motion between the source of a wave and an observer. When the source approaches the observer, the frequency is higher, when the source recedes from the observer, the frequency is lower

Answer 134

Individuals exhibit violent as a result of having a goal or effort blocked or defeated (eg frustration)

Answer 135

Is the reaction between an ester and an alcohol that results in an exchange of alkoxy and alcohol R groups. The reaction can be either acid or base catalyzed. It involves nucleophilic attack by the alcohol on the carbonyl carbon of ester to form new alkoxy group. The original alkoxy group leaves and becomes protonated to form a new alcohol.

Answer 136

Is the remodel of an alkoxy group from ester by a base. It forms a carboxylic acid and an alcohol.

Answer 137

Separate based on boiling point. Low BP elude first. For compounds with same carbon atoms, alkanes have the lowest BP, followed by aldehyde ketones, alcohols and carboxylic acid

Answer 138

Secretory product is gastrin which signal parietal cells to secrete hydrochloric acid.

Answer 139

It produces hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factors. Hydrochloric acid is primary component of gastric juice, activates proteolytic enzymes, kills microbes and denature (unfolds) proteins. Intrinsic factors aids in the absorption of vitamin B12 in the illeum.

Answer 140

It produces pepsinogen and gastric lipase. Pepsinogen cleaves polypeptides into smaller peptides when activated by the low pH of gastric juice. Gastric lipase carries out hydrolysis of lipids in the stomach

Answer 141

Produces mucus and bicarbonate. Those protects the stomach wall from autodigestion by gastric juice which contains acid and proteases

Answer 142

In descending loop of henle. In the loop of henle, active transport of NaCl from the ascending limb maintains the high salt concentration in the kidneys medulla, facilitating the reabsorption of water from the descending limb.

Answer 143

Outer Cortex and inner salty medulla

Answer 144

When a liquid is heated above its boiling point but it doesn’t boil. Surface tension causes the vapor pressure inside bubbles to increases as they form causing them to explode at the surface.

Answer 145

Are made of non reactive porous material and provide nucleation sites where small bubbles of vapor can form. This effect overcomes the surface tension and allows the liquid to boil evenly at its normal boiling temperature thereby preventing superheating.

Answer 146

Zeff=Z-S Z= #of proton in nucleus (+) S shielding constant (core electron)

Answer 147

Concave mirror= converging Convex mirror= diverging Concave lens= diverging Convex mirror=converging

Answer 148

Convex lens F=positive + Concave lens F=negative -

Answer 149

F=negative Diverging Image is always on the left, virtual, upright, smaller.

Answer 150

F=+ Converging If object is left of F, image is inverted, Real, Enlarged If object is between F and lens, upright, virtual, enlarged.

Answer 151

1/f=1/do +1/di M=hi/ho =-di/do |m|>1 enlarged M=negative is inverted M=positive is upright hi positive is real hi negative is virtual When di is on the right, it is positive and real image When di is in the left, it is negative and virtual image

Answer 152

1. Mouth (mechanical and chemical digestion) 2. Esophagus (peristalsis movement) 3. Stomach (mechanical and chemical digestion of food into chyme) 4. Small intestine (digestion of macromolecules, water and nutrients absorption) 5. Large intestine (absorption of remaining water and electrolytes, bacterial flora) *bacterial flora - metabolize carbohydrates into FA, synthesize vitamins.

Answer 153

Duodenum, jejunum, ileum.

Answer 154

Digestion of lipids in the small intestine is aided by bile, which is nonenzymatic solution produced by liver cells and stored in gallbladder

Answer 155

Cecum, colon, rectum

Answer 156

Beta cells -produces insulin Alpha cells- produces glucagon Delta cells -produces somatostatin

Answer 157

V=IR Voltage=current x resistance

Answer 158

y=mx +b M-slope X-x intercept Y-y intercept Slope=rise/run 1. Find the y intercept 2. Then go rise and run on the graph.

Answer 159

Cleaved into 2 molecules: carboxylic acid and either ester or amide depending on the nucleophile (alcohol or amine). Cyclic anhydrides are not cleaved but instead ring is broken, placing CA group and the ester(or amide) at opposite ends of the new molecule

Answer 160

Can be prepared from introducing alkyl halides into magnesium turnings in diethyl ether or THF.

Answer 161

Carbon to carbon bond formation reactions between its alkyl group and an electrophilic molecule. When electrophile is carbon is from ketone or aldehyde, it uses nucleophilic addition to the carbonyl, generating alkoxide. Protonation of alkoxide during acidic workup results in alcohol and adds one alkyl group to the electrophilic carbon.

Answer 162

Hypothalamus Pituitary Pineal Thyroid Parathyroid Pancreas Adrenal medulla Adrenal cortex Ovary Testis

Answer 163

Secrete hormones mediating stress response.

Answer 164

Cortisol and aldosterone. It secretes steroid hormones. (Glucocorticoids and mineralcorticoids.) Long term stress response: Glucocorticoids - promote gluconeogenesis, increase blood glucose, inhibition of immune system, promote lipolysis. Mineralcorticoids- reabsorption of Na+ and water Increase blood volume and blood pressure

Answer 165

Amino acid based hormones, norepinephrine and epinephrine (catecholamines) Short term response to stress: Increased heart rate, blood pressure, metabolic rate, dilation of bronchioles, decreased digestive and urine output. Glycogenolysis results in glucose release Into bloodstream

Answer 166

Dimer is structure containing two identical or similar units. Units may be associated by covalent bonding or by noncovalent forces

Answer 167

1.carboxylic acid 2. Ester 3. Amide 4. Aldehyde 5. Ketone 6. Alcohol 7. Amine 8. Alkene 9. Alkyne 10. Alkane 11. Ether 12. Alkyl halide

Answer 168

Involves the displacement of one group by another

Answer 169

Involves 2 groups adding across a pi bond, consuming the pi bond in the process

Answer 170

Involves loss of 2 groups from adjacent carbon atoms and the formation of new a pi bond

Answer 171

Carboxylic acid derivative 1 +nucleophile -> tetrahedral intermediate -> carboxylic acid derivative 2 + LG (good leaving group). If not good LG then it becomes nucleophilic addition reaction.

Answer 172

Measure of an oxidized molecule’s affinity for electrons in redox half reactions. Electrons are transferred from species with low reduction potential to species with higher reduction potential( more affinity for electrons)

Answer 173

Osteoprogenitor - stem cells that differentiate into osteoblast Osteoblast Osteoclast - breaks down old bone Osteocyte - mature and mitotically inactive Bone cells that maintain bone structure. Those cells releases signals to other bone cells to regulate compact bone remodeling. Because they are confined to lacunae within a firm matrix in compact bone, signaling molecules released from osteocytes that regulate bone remodeling Must travel to their target cells via canaliculi.

Answer 174

Is the linkage between monosaccharides and is made up of a hemiacetal or hemiketal from one sugar and the hydroxyl group of another molecule. This bond is broken by hydrolysis reaction.

Answer 175

Glucose + fructose

Answer 176

is used to identify the presence of aldehyde and hydroxy ketones, including reducing sugars which has a free anomeric carbon (carbon that has 2 bonds to oxygen). Tollens test uses oxidizing agent Ag(NH3)2 to oxidize aldehyde to carboxylic acid. Ketoses can undergo tautomerization via an enedial intermediate to their aldose form, resulting positive Tollens read and formation of s silver mirror appearance.

Answer 177

Consanguineal - based on genetic relationship ( eg biological parents) Affinal - based on marriage ( eg spouses) Fictive - social ties that are not consanguineal or affinal (eg adopted children)

Answer 178

Stage 1 oral, infancy, birth-1 year, Stage 2 anal, early childhood, 1-3 years, Stage 3, phallic, preschool, 3-6 years old, their libido is now focused on their desire for the opposite sex. Oedipus complex (young boy to his mom), Electra complex ( young girl to his dad), penis envy. This fixation can result into relationship problems in the future (narcissistic, vain, sexually aggressive, incapable of love) Stage 4: latency, School age, 6-12, libido is focused on developing friendships, social skills and hobbies. Stage 5: genital, adolescent, 12-18, sexual interests begin to rise again, libido is focused on needs of others. Fixation of this stage can lead to fetishes, homosexuality and asexuality in the future

Answer 179

Stage 1: trust vs mistrust, infancyC birth to 1 year, basic virtue is hope. Stage 2: autonomy vs shame & doubt, early childhood, 1-3 years, basic virtue is will. Stage 3: initiative vs guilt, preschool, 3-6 years old, basic virtue is purpose. Stage 4: industry vs inferiority, school age, 6-12, basic virtue is competency Stage 5- identity or role confusion, adolescent, 12-18, basic virtue is fidelity. Stage 6: intimacy vs isolation, young adulthood, 18-35, basic virtue is Love Stage 7: generativity vs stagnation, middle age, 35-60, basic virtue is care Stage 8: integrity vs despair, old age, 60+, basic virtue is wisdom.

Answer 180

3 distinct stages, each has 2 sub stages. Each stage must be completed before progress to the next. Stage 1: preconventional, subs: obedience & punishment avoidance, individualism & self interest Stage 2: conventional, subs: conformity to expectations, need to uphold laws and social order. Stage 3: post conventional, subs: greater good, universal ethics and justice based laws

Answer 181

More knowledgeable order MKO, acts as a model of behavior through collaborative dialogue and the child internalizes those behaviors. Elementary mental functions EMF that children initially have; attention, sensation, perception, memory. For higher mental functions, they need help from MKO

Answer 182

Inductive effect of the alpha carboxylate lowers the Pka of the alpha amine. Protonated amines are destabilized by withdrawn electrons. Cardoxylate group withdraws electrons through inductive effect.

Answer 183

When a base deprotonates an alpha carbon (carbon adjacent to a carbonyl C=O). For unsymmetrical carbonyl, the type of base is used and the reaction temperature affect which alpha carbon is deprotonated

Answer 184

This one results from deprotonation of the least substituted alpha carbon. This enolate forms quickly because base can access the less substituted carbon more easily. Large bulky base such as LGA and lower temperature yields this product.

Answer 185

By deprotonation of more substituted alpha carbon using a small base such as NaH at higher temperature. This enolate is more stable but forms more slowly than kinetic enolate.

Answer 186

Is behavior that violate social norms, the customary ways of doing things in society. Three major theories of: Strain Differential association Labeling

Answer 187

Predicts that individual experience tension (strain) when there is a disconnect between goals and the available means for achieving those goals.

Answer 188

Deviance is learned through interactions with others engaging in deviance. Eg if gang members carry illegal firearms, new recruits quickly learn that this is normal and expected.

Answer 189

When individuals are labels as deviant, they will confirm the label by acting deviant. Initial acts (primary deviance) are usually mild but lead to the deviant label and social stigma. Internalization of deviant label leads to more serious transgressions

Answer 190

1. Confirmation bias - seeking information that support belief. Ignoring information that refutes belief, interpretation of ambiguous information as support 2. Functional fixedness - inability to see a use for an object beyond its intended use 3. Mental set- inability to see a problem from a new perspectives, inclination to use old methods to solve new problems

Answer 191

When research subject behave differently as a result of knowing that they are being observed

Answer 192

Subfield of epidemiology, focusing on the social factors that influence the health of an individual or population

Answer 193

The discontent people experience when they believe they are entitled to something yet are being deprived of it. Deviant behavior can arise from those feeling of discontent.

Answer 194

Help explain human migration patterns. Push factors describe why people move away from their native country and pull factors describe why people move to new country

Answer 195

Mores are serious norms with moral significance (eg adultary)

Answer 196

Sanctions are means of social control in society. Formal sanctions are those that are codified into society as rules or laws . Informal sanctions are those are not codified eg adultery results in social shunning from the community

Answer 197

Non-financial and nonsocial network assets that confer advantage in society. Eg education, hard work, attractiveness

Answer 198

Primary - peptide bond Secondary - hydrogen bond Tertiary and quaternary- van Der waals, Hydrogen, ionic bonds and disulfide bonds

Answer 199

-1.6x10^-19

Answer 200

It suggests that people learn through observing others. Vicarious learning takes places through watching other people behave in a certain way and then get rewarded or punished for it. Depending on the outcome, the observer may or may not choose to behave in the same way as the model.

Answer 201

It define two routes of persuasion: Central route (focusing on logical content for the message) is most effective when the audience is motivated by the message Peripheral route (focusing on superficial characteristics of the message) is more effective when people are not motivated by the message

Answer 202

People are motivated to think and behave in ways that are cognitively consistent. Divergent thought and or behaviors result in discomfort, motivating them to change their behaviors and or attitudes so they can align. Eg. A person who runs and smokes, would be motivated to quit smoking.

Answer 203

People tend to behave in ways that are consistent with the role they are playing. Role playing effects, most famously demonstrated by the Stanford prison experiment, predict that when individuals are asked to behave in ways that align with an assigned role, they often demonstrate attitude changes.

Answer 204

Are irrational thought processes that commonly occur and result in illogical conclusions. 1. Self positivity bias - belief that less vulnerable to negative outcome 2. Optimism bias 3. Actor observer bias - individuals attribute other people’s behavior to internal causes (eg she yelled at her child because she is bad mother) while attributing their own behavior to external causes (eg I yelled at my child because I had a bad day at work) 4. The confirmation bias - tendency to look for information that supports the conclusion one has already reached, ignoring information undermines that conclusion 5. Overconfidence bias- people are sure of their belief is greater than the accuracy of that belief.

Answer 205

So that the molecule with the lowest boiling point can evaporate before the molecules with higher BP.

Answer 206

It is known as saponification and begins by the addition of hydroxide to the carbonyl, creating a tetrahedral intermediate. The reaction forms carboxylic acid and alcohol

Answer 207

They are composed of three fatty acyl groups bonded to glycerol through ester linkages. Basic hydrolysis of the ester linkage releases three FA salts and glycerol. The number of unique FA salts released depends on composition of the hydrocarbon tails on the fatty acyl groups

Answer 208

1. Pathogens binds to B lymphocytes receptor, is endocytized, and presented in MHC II 2. Helper T cell binds foreign antigen and release cytokines that activate the B lymphocytes. 3. Activated B lymphocytes divides into many clones that differentiate into plasma cells or memory cells.

Answer 209

Is an antibody immune response, Is driven by B lymphocytes that secretes antibodies which circulate throughout the blood and lymph, binding foreign antigens and marking them for destruction by other immune cells. Mature B lymphocytes are inactive until their receptors bind a specific foreign antigen.

Answer 210

During anaerobic exercise, pyruvate is reduced to lactate to regenerate NAD+. Lactate that builds up in the muscles is sent to the the liver; where is converted back to glucose and returned to muscles. This process is called cori cycle.

Answer 211

The rate of heat transfer through conduction depends on the thermal conductivity of a substance. Objects at the same temperature but with different thermal conductivity are perceived to be different temperatures. Tile Feels colder because it has high thermal conductivity than carpet.

Answer 212

Alpha carbon (carbon adjacent to carbonyl) are more acidic than other protons bonded to a carbon because they are electron deficient and can be abstracted by a base to yield an anion. The charge is delocalized to form a more stable resonant structure known as an enolate.

Answer 213

Kinetic enolates require low activation energy and for rapidly under low temperature and bulky base (eg LDA) reactions conditions. And it involves the deprotonation of less substituted alpha carbon.

Answer 214

1. Formation of an enolate 2. Nucleophilic addition to a carbonyl 3. Protonation 4. Acid or base catalyzed dehydration to form an alpha, beta unsaturated carbonyl.

Answer 215

Higher temperature with smaller base eg NaH, would lead to deprotonation of the more substituted alpha carbon.

Answer 216

Citric acid cycle is an oxidative process. 1. Isocitrate to alpha ketoglutarate CO2 leaves. One NADH is produced 2. Alpha ketoglutarate to succinyl CoA. CO2 leaves, one NADH is produced. 3. Succinate to fumarate, produces FADH2 4. Malate to oxaloacetate, NADH is produced.

Answer 217

Role strain occurs when single role involves multiple competing expectations which produce tension. Eg physician instructor who struggles to balance patient care and student instruction. Role conflict occurs when 2 or more roles simultaneously held by an individual compete, producing tension. A physician who reduces patient load because she feels tension between her career, to her children or family.

Answer 218

Eg sounds waves, waves on a string are perturbations created by oscillations in a medium such as air or a string. When a wave moves from one medium to another, the amplitude and wavelength change but the frequency of the wave remains constant.

Answer 219

Is the ability to learn and apply new information and skills, adapt to the environment and reason through complex situations

Answer 220

Is the ability to use logic and creativity to solve novel problems and identify in new situations. It is thought to peek in early adulthood and decline with age

Answer 221

Is the ability to apply skills and knowledge that have already been learned. It is thought to increase with age

Answer 222

Is the ability to focus on one stream of information while ignoring other stimuli

Answer 223

Is the ability to attent to more than one stimulus or task at a time.

Answer 224

Encoding storage and retrieval

Answer 225

Recall, recognition, and relearning

Answer 226

Decline with age: episodic, flashbulb, source Don’t: semantic and procedural

Answer 227

Anterograde: is a form of pathological memory loss in which a person cannot form new memories after the incident that caused the amnesia. Retrograde: is a form of pathological memory loss in which a person cannot access memories that were encoded before the incident that caused the amnesia.

Answer 228

Vo=Vmax [S]\Km+[S]

Answer 229

Intensive properties that belong to the sample or substance itself, regardless of amount. Eg density; temperature, specific heat capacity Extensive properties that depend on the amount of sample or substance available eg mass and volume, heat; heat capacity

Answer 230

Km is intensive, doesn’t vary with the amount of enzyme present. Vmax is extensive, does vary on the amount of enzyme present.

Answer 231

Is a transient chemical species that is formed in one elementary step and consumed in a subsequent step. They don’t appear as reactants or products in overall reaction (net)

Answer 232

1. For less sterically hindered carbon. 2. Requires strong nucleophile and will attack the most sterically accessible carbon atom that contains a Good LG. 3. Polar aprotic solvents often used to promote Sn2 reactions. Polar aprotic solvents contain polar functional groups that lack the ability to hydrogen bond. Eg acetone, acentonitrile, dimethylsulfoxide. DMF etc

Answer 233

In an Sn2 reaction, Walden inversion occurs only at the carbon (chiral) that is attacked by the nucleophile. Other chiral carbon atoms are not effected by it. If attacked carbon is achirel, it is not effected

Answer 234

Is the amount of heat 1 mole of a substance must absorb (or release) to produce a change in phase (eg solid to liquid, gas to liquid) while maintaining constant temperature.

Answer 235

1. Normative - people voluntarily unite based on shared values and or goals. Eg sororities, church members 2. Utilitarian -members are compensated for their involvements, typically through money eg paid employment or certification/diploma Eg university students 3. Coercive eg prisoners, military service members

Answer 236

1. Activation, in the cytosol, the enzyme acyl CoA synthetase catalyzes the rxn of FA with coenzyme A to form acylCoA molecule. This needs ATP hydrolysis 2. Acyl CoA migrate to intermembrane space where they can react with carnitine to form acylcarnitine. The transport protein acylcarnitine translocase located on the inner mitochondrial membrane carries into the mitochondrial matrix 3. Acylcarnitine is then converted back to acyl CoA (digested by beta oxidation) and carnitine (transported out of the matrix)

Answer 237

It occurs in 2 steps. First a carbocation intermediate is formed when the bond between the leaving group and adjoining carbon atom is broken. Next the nucleophile adds to the carbocation to form the reaction product. Substrates that form a more stable carbocation react faster

Answer 238

Oxidation requires a decrease in CH bond and increase in C-O bonds. Primary and secondary alcohols can be oxidized to carboxylic acid and ketones. But tertiary alcohols cant oxidized because it doesn’t have CH bonds to lose

Answer 239

Emotion is experienced first followed by physiological and behavioral events. We see something scary and feel scared and then break into a cold sweat. It is opposite of James Lange theory of emotion

Answer 240

Emotion occurs after a physiological response. We see something scary which causes physiological response then causes brain to register the associated emotion. I am afraid because my heart is pounding

Answer 241

Emotion is result of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisals. My pounding heart signifies fear because I have appraised the as dangerous

Answer 242

The limbic system is a network of brain regions involved in emotion, learning and memory. Includes amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus and cingulate gyrus.

Answer 243

Is responsible for primarily for the physiological component of emotion such as changes in heart or respiratoration rate by regulating the pituitary gland and the automatic nervous system

Answer 244

Are the type of neuron that fires when an individual both observes and performs a behavior, they may play a central role in observational learning and experience of vicarious emotion

Answer 245

Occur when an observer intuits the feeling that another might be experiencing. They are thought to be have evolved to help individuals relate to and understand one another through shared emotional expression.

Answer 246

During inspiration the diaphragm contracts ( moves downward), expanding the thoracic cavity and reducing intra pulmonary pressure. This causes king to expand. As lung volume increases, intra pulmonary pressure drops below the atmospheric pressure and air flows from atmospheric (higher) pressure into lungs (lower pressure)

Answer 247

1. Hyaline - reduces friction between bony structures to facilitate joint movements. Allow linear bone growth at the epiphyseal plate in childhood. Reinforces respiratory Passageways. Supports the external nose. 2. Elastic - highly flexible, withstand distortion without damage and reverts to its original shares eg external ear 3. Fibrous - limits movement, resists compression forces and stretch.prevents direct contact between bones eg between vertebrae of the spine

Answer 248

Ligaments and tendons are rope like dense connective tissue structures. Ligaments attach bones to other bones whereas tendons generally attach bones to surrounding muscles

Answer 249

Delta G=delta D standard +RTlnQ Standard condition is 1M all reactants pH 7. The equation shows that delta G physiological varies with the concentrations of the reactants and products involved. Changing concentration of products and reactants can shift reactions in the forward or reverse direction and the delta G will change to reflect the new equilibrium even if the delta G standard is not spontaneous

Answer 250

1. Activity - remaining physically and socially active improves quality of life for older adults 2. Continuity- older adults attempts to maintain the habits and behaviors from their youth 3. Disengagement- older adults withdraw from social relationships/society as society withdraws from them 4. Life course- aging viewed holistically in terms of social, biological, cultural and psychological contexts.

Answer 251

Dependency ratio= (#child) +(#retired dependents)/(#people in workforce) time 100% Child- people under age 15 Retired -over 64

Answer 252

Population growth is exponential but resource growth is linear. When population outgrow available resources, preventable checks decrease the birth rate and positive checks increase the death rate. Malthusian catastrophes are large scale positive checks (war, disease epidemics)

Answer 253

1. Total fertility rate- is the average number of children born per woman during her lifetime 2. The crude birth rate- refers to number of live births per year for every 1000 people in population (regardless of sex) 3. General fertility rate - total number of live births per year for every 1000 women of childbearing age in a population 4. Age specific fertility rate -number of live births per year for 1000 women in a certain age group in a population

Answer 254

Compounds with longer retention times have a greater affinity for the stationary phase and lower affinity for the mobile phase

Answer 255

Resistors in series: Req=R1+R2+… Resistors in parallel: 1/Req=1/R1+1/R2…

Answer 256

Pressure that caused by the weight of static fluid molecules within a column of fluid. The magnitude of hydrostatic pressure depends on density of fluid, acceleration of gravity, and height of the fluid. Unrelated to the container shape. 1atm is 760nnhg

Answer 257

Occurs when a desirable stimulus is presented to encourage behavior.

Answer 258

Undesirable stimulus taken away to encourage behavior Eg teenager doesn’t have to do chores after getting all As

Answer 259

Undesirable stimulus added to discourage behavior Eg toddler gets spanked for running into the street

Answer 260

Desirable stimulus is taken away to discourage behavior Eg teenager gets grounded for getting bad grades

Answer 261

Fulfill a biological urge and Are naturally rewarding. Eg food, comforting physical contact and praise.

Answer 262

Are not inherently rewarding but are conditioned to be desirable through associative learning. Eg if a child brings home good grade, the parent may reinforce this behavior with praise or candy (primary reinforcers) the child feels happy. The child then associate feeling good with good grades resulting grade becoming a secondary reinforcer

Answer 263

Are naturally undesirable and cause negative emotions such as pain or fear. Eg electric shock or loud noise.

Answer 264

Are not inherently negative but are conditioned to be undesirable through associative learning. For example if child bring home bad grades parents may punish this behavior by scolding ( primary punishers) so the child feels bad. The child then associates feeling bad with bad grades, resulting in grades becoming a secondary punisher

Answer 265

Is the energy per unit of charge that is supplied by a battery or other generator to move charge through a circuit. In principle it is equal to the observed terminal voltage E=V however in real systems it is not perfectly efficient and as result internal resistance dissipate some of the electric potential energy. Vloss=IR V=E-Vloss

Answer 266

When the substrate bound to every enzyme active site in solution. In michaeli menten graph, [S] is significantly larger than [E] at every [S] measured. However, Vmax occurs only when the concentration of substrate [S] is high enough that all enzyme active site are bound

Answer 267

Occurs when the likelyhood of an individual repeating a behavior is influenced by the outcome of that behavior ( reinforcement or punishment)

Answer 268

Are Made up of nonpolar hydrocarbon chain with polar carboxyl head group and can be classified as either saturated or unsaturated. Free FA are usually not Found in blood plasma but rather exist as derivative such as triacylglyceride or phospholipid. Hydrolysis of those releases free FAs.

Answer 269

Three fatty acids (can be different each of them) and glycerol molecule connected through ester linkages. Hydrolysis releases FA and glycerol

Answer 270

Is the hydrolysis of an ester with strong base. It hydrolyze triacylglycerols into free FA as (sodium salts)and glycerol.

Answer 271

Regardless of classification (eukaryotic or prokaryotes) all cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane. In addition to this membrane, some cell types have cell wall. Nearly all prokaryotes have cell wall but only some eukaryotic cells do. Major component of cell walls in bacteria is peptidoglycan. All eukaryotic cells lack peptidoglycan even if they have a cell walls.

Answer 272

All bacteria are prokaryotic

Answer 273

The type of bond formed between two atoms depends on the relative difference in EN between them. Atoms with large difference in EN (usually a metal and a nonmetal) form ionic bonds. Atoms with a small difference in EN (usually two nonmetals) form covalent bonds.

Answer 274

1. Parasomnias - More common in children, involves an oral function the nervous system during sleep, falling sleep or when rousing from sleep. Common examples: somnambulism (sleep walking), and night terrors 2. Dyssomnias- More common in adults, involve interference with the quality or timing of sleep. Common examples insomnia, sleep apnea, narcolepsy ( extreme daytime sleepiness)

Answer 275

The hypothalamus has several nuclei (collections of neuronal cell bodies) that have specialized functions, one of them is suprachiasmatic nucleus which regulates the circadian pacemaker that controls circadian rhythms.

Answer 276

1. Preparatory - infancy and toddler, imitation- often lacks understanding 2. Play - preschool age, role taking- taking on role of specific others 3. Game - school age, generalized other - understanding all roles and overarching rules. I - preparatory and game stage Me- game stage

Answer 277

Involve collecting date over a period of time. It can be either experimental or observational.

Answer 278

Use observation and interview to qualitatively study people with their own communities and provide descriptive information about their cultures, behaviors, norms and values.

Answer 279

Is an observational study that measures a variable in a population or sub population at one time point

Answer 280

Randomly sorts subjects into treatment and control groups

Answer 281

Is a holistic, multidisciplinary framework for understanding how psychological, biological, and socialcultural factors across lifetime have a cumulative effect on health outcome. This perspective considers how personal life events (eg illness in infancy), individual choices/behaviors (eg having unprotected sex) and socialcultural and historical context (eg being born during wartime) impact health and illness.

Answer 282

Is a functionalist approach describing how distraction to typical social activity (eg work) caused by illness is minimized through the sick role, which legitimize illness as socially acceptable deviance.

Answer 283

Is a symbolic interactionist approach to understanding how people incorporate and make sense of illness as part of their self identity and daily routine

Answer 284

By the number of carbons they contain. Eg pentose, hexose. Also they are classified by the position of the anomeric carbon. When the anemoric carbon is on carbon 1, the linear form of the sugar contains aldehyde group. (Aldoses). When anomeric carbon is at carbon 2; the linear form of the sugar contains ketone. And sugar is ketose. Note: six carbon sugar can change from five membered ring to six membered ring, hexose name is not changing, only it changes from furanose to pyranose

Answer 285

The speed of waves is determined by the physical properties of the medium through which they travel. For example the speed of sound waves depends on temperature of the medium. Sound travels faster in warmer air and slower in cooler air.

Answer 286

Intensity and loudness. But not the wave’s frequency. Dissipation of energy doesn’t effect the frequency of a wave.

Answer 287

Solutes move from area or higher to low concentration, no energy required. 1. Simple diffusion 2. Facilitated transport - large, polar solutes transported across membrane with the help for protein carrier

Answer 288

Solutes move from area of low to high concentration, energy required 1. Primary - solutes transported across membrane using energy from ATP hydrolysis 2. Secondary - solutes transported across membrane using energy released by another solute going down its concentration gradients

Answer 289

Is performed under reduced pressure, lowering compound’s boiling point relative to its boiling point at atmospheric pressure. It is ideal for compounds with a BP above 150C to prevent degradation

Answer 290

Is a technique that separates compounds based on BP. Compounds with low BP have shorter retention time. BP of similar number of carbon, BP deepen on the functional group and the strength of intermolecular forces present.

Answer 291

In multicellular organisms many distinctive cell types must be formed from a single Celled zygote. During development both external ( eg secreted signals, environmental cues) and internal factors (eg chromatin remodeling; DNA methylation, asymmetric distribution of cellular components) influence gene expression in a differential manner which culminates in the differentiation of cells into a variety of cell types.

Answer 292

Describes the neural changes responsible for learning, memory, and associations. LTP occurs when a neuron’s firing rate increases after repeated stimulation or simultaneous stimulation by multiple input (association). LTP result from an increase in neurotransmitter release and postsynaptic receptors.

Answer 293

Refers to physical changes that occur in the brain throughout a lifetime including both increasing (potentiation) and decreases (depression) in neural responses/connections. Neuroplasticity occurs through physical modifications at the synapses (immediate and delayed plasticity) and the structural level (delayed plasticity only)

Answer 294

It results from changes in the firing rate of the presynaptic neuron which alters the amount of neurotransmitter released into the synaptic cleft and the number of receptors on the postsynaptic target. The changes can be immediate or delayed in potentiation or depression. At the structural level it can change through sprouting (increased connections between neurons), rerouting ( new connection between neurons) and pruning ( decreased connection between neurons) which contribute to structural plasticity

Answer 295

Remove or destruction of tissue

Answer 296

Produces anterograde amnesia, the inability to form new memories. However bilateral hippocampal ablation would also result in some degree of retrograde amnesia and the inability to recall memories that were previously encoded. The hippocampus controls memory consolidation

Answer 297

1. Sensory: auditory (few seconds) visual (iconic), less than a second 2. Short term memory: 20 sec, 7-+2 items 3. Long term memory: lifetime, unlimited Long term has: A. Explicit/ declarative memory - episodic (experiences, events) semantic -(facts, concepts) B. Implicit/non declarative memory - procedural (skills and tasks), emotional/ reflexive

Answer 298

Is central to motor learning; maintaining balance and posture, coordinating complex movements and controlling precision of fine motor movements. The cerebellum doesn’t initiate voluntary movement which occurs in the primary motor cortex of the frontal lobe. However the cerebellum is critical for most other aspects of motor planning and execution

Answer 299

Processes spatial information (proprioception) and is responsible for cognitive mapping, our ability to represent mentally the spatial relationships concerning things in our environment. Also somatosensation

Answer 300

Executive functions. Active manipulation of information involved in reasoning and problem solving (known as working memory) and the initiation of voluntary motor movements

Answer 301

Learning, memory and auditory processing

Answer 302

Hydrolyzable -lipid contains hydrolyzable ester or amide linkages Eg: phospholipids, glycerolipids, sphingolipids (amide linkage), waxes Non hydrolyzable-don’t have those linkages. Eg steroids, prostaglandins, fat soluble vitamins.

Answer 303

The 3 carbon molecules lactate, pyruvate and glycerol (from FA) are gluconeogenuc precursors as Are most amino acids except leucine and lysine

Answer 304

Is behavior that benefits others in a group at a potential cost or risk to oneself. It can explained by the theory of inclusive fitness which states that an individual’s genetic success is partially derived from the success of genetic relatives and by Hans theory which evaluates the relative successes of particular behavioral phenotypes such.

Answer 305

Is sum of its direct fitness (own reproduction) and indirect fitness (cooperative behavior that aids kin).

Answer 306

Solid to liquid -fusion, opposite is freezing Liquid to gas - vaporization opposite is condensation Gas to solid- deposition, opposite is sublimation

Answer 307

Open Closed - allows heat exchange but not matter Isolated - don’t allow exchange of heat or matter. Calorimetry device is one example

Answer 308

Dilutions are performed to decrease the concentration of a solution when small amounts is needed. A small volume of concentrated solution Vt is transferred to certain solvent Vs so final V is sum of those two. Dilution factor can be determined from ratio of Vf and Vt Vf= Vt +Vs DF=Vf/Vt in single step, multiple step keep multiplying the each ratios from each dilution.

Answer 309

1. Cognitive behavioral therapy 2. Psychoanalytic therapy 3. Humanistic therapy (person centered therapy)

Answer 310

Attempts to change negative thoughts/beliefs (cognitions) and maladaptive behaviors. Uses various techniques (desensitization, self talk) used to replace destructive thoughts/behaviors with healthy ones.

Answer 311

Attempts to uncover how unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood shapes behaviors. Various techniques ( eg free association, dream analysis) used to analyze unconscious

Answer 312

Attempt to empower individual to lobe toward self-actualization. Unconditional positive regard and empathy used to encourage client to reach full potential.

Answer 313

It predicts that an individual’s response or reaction to a situation is the result of her interpretation of the situation. In other words, our actions are based on our perception of reality.

Answer 314

There is an optimal level of psychological or mental arousal at which performance is maximized, performance will decline with too little or too much arousal. For example, athletes tend to perform best when nervous but not too much.

Answer 315

Experimental subjects modifying their behavior or responses because they know they are being observed

Answer 316

Proposed by Hans Seyle, describes how the body reacts to stress that is acute or long lasting. There are three stages of stress response: 1. alarm stage - first few minutes of stress response. Sympathetic Nervous system prepares the body to act. 2. Resistance stage - can last for hours days or even months. During this stage Body attempts to resist or address the stressor. Body attempts to establish new equilibrium. 3. Exhaustion stage - state of arousal but with depleted energy. During this stage, chronic diseases can develop. The body is no longer able to resist the impact of stressors.

Answer 317

Attitude refers to a person’s evaluation or disposition toward something. Components: 1. Affective - how a person feels about something. Eg I hate x candidate 2. Cognitive- person’s beliefs, thoughts, opinions about something. Eg I think candidate Y is qualified. 3. Behavioral- how person acts toward something. Eg voting for candidate Y

Answer 318

Proposes that individuals are motivated to act based on the expected outcomes of their behavior. According to this theory, motivation involves 1. Expectancy - is the belief that one will be able to achieve the desired outcome 2. Instrumentality - is the belief that one has control over the desired outcomeZ 3. Valence - involves the value placed on the desired outcome

Answer 319

Motivation is a result of a disruption of homeostasis which generates a biological need. The biological need generates a drive to fulfill that need which prompts action. For example, when blood glucose level drop, an organism feels hungry and engages in food seeking behavior.

Answer 320

Describes feeling of powerlessness and loss of control, often occurring after a series of failures or trauma. Learned helplessness is tied to low self efficacy (personal beliefs about one’s abilities ) and an external locus of control (personal beliefs about whether one can influence the outcome of a situation)

Answer 321

400-750. It is in between infrared and ultraviolet

Answer 322

Their brightness or loudness. Is defined as the amount of power (energy per unit time) delivered per unit area. Intensity=power/area=(energy/time)/area

Answer 323

Electromagnetic radiation is propagated by oscillating particles called photons which consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. Photons are packets of energy that travel at a constant speed of light (in vacuum). It is characterized by its wavelength and frequency c=wavelength x frequency and the energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency and planks constant. E=hf

Answer 324

The two homologous chromosomes in a diploid 2n cell each contain alleles for the same genes. During DNA replication it becomes sister chromatids which are identical copies of each homologous chromosome

Answer 325

Refers to the total number of homologous chromosome sets in a cell nucleus. Diploid 2n has sets, triploid has 3n sets etc

Answer 326

Pre conventional level (direct consequences to the individual) morality is externally controlled by punishment (stage 1, obedience & punishment) and reciprocity with other (staged 2 self interest), eg I will help you if you help me Conventional level (society’s norms and values) Morality is based on conforming to norms (stage 3 conformity and interpersonal accord) eg I will do homework so the teacher likes me. And obeying the law (stage 4 law and order). Post conventional level, own ethical principles Morality is based on social contract (stage 5 social contract) and a personal code of ethics (stage 6 universal ethical principles) Few people achieve this. Kohlberg posts cum and penis

Answer 327

Evaluates the psychological progress of individuals based on their level of commitment and degree of development, yielding four identity statues. 1. Diffusion- low commitment, low exploration. At This level, people lack direction haven’t explored options and haven’t committed to particular career path or future 2. Foreclosure - high commitment, low exploration: people accepted an identity that they have been assigned (typically by a parent or authority figure) without contemplation or exploration 3. Moratorium- low commitment, high exploration: still trying new activities and thinking about a career path but haven’t yet arrived at a decision. 4. Achievement- high commitment, high exploration: people at this level have explored their options and typically feel confident about who they are and what they want to do in the future

Answer 328

1. Skeletal muscle 2. Cardiac muscle 3. Smooth muscle

Answer 329

Long, cylindrical fibers that each possess many nuclei. Contain sarcomeres, striated appearance. Lack gap junctions, electrically isolated from one another

Answer 330

Short, branched cells with one or two nuclei. Possess sarcomeres = striated appearance. Connected to adjacent cells via intercalated discs which contains desmosomes and gap junctions.

Answer 331

Short, wide in the middle and tapered at each end. Each muscle cell possesses single nucleus. Lack sarcomeres. Possess gap junctions

Answer 332

Less capillary action: low adhesive, high cohesive forces More capillary action: High adhesive, low cohesive forces

Answer 333

1. Learning perspective ( behaviorist theory) learned via operant conditioning and language imitation & practice. 2. Nativist perspective - innate and biologically predetermined. Occurs during a critical (time sensitive) period early in life. 3. Interactionist perspective: biological AND social (due to interaction, reinforcement, desire/motivation to communicate)

Answer 334

Refers to thought related mental processes (eg thinking, planing, reasoning)

Answer 335

On the spectrum: Cognition shapes languages: Universalism perspective - cognition completely controls language Or Piagetian perspective- cognition influences language Language shapes cognition (aka Sapir-Whorf hypothesis): Linguistic determinism perspective- completely controls cognition Or Linguistic relativity perspective- language influences cognition In between those two extremities: Vygotsky: language and thought develop independently and simultaneously, merging later. Social interactions precedes and it is necessary for both cognition and language development which initially separate but then later merge to generate inner speech (verbal thought)

Answer 336

1. Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2, milestone is object permanence. Infants explore the world using their sense and motor movements 2. Preoperational stage; 2-7, milestone is language. Ability to use language and pretend play. Unable to assume the point of view of another person (egocentric). Eg when asked what her dad’s favorite book is, a young girl will often repost her own favorite book. 3. Concrete operational stage: 7-12, milestone is conservation. Think logically about concrete events and learn to classify objects into simple categories 4. Formal operations stage: 12- adulthood, milestone is abstract logic/reasoning.

Answer 337

It suggests that there is a time sensitive period early in life during which language acquisition is easier (with proper exposure) as compared to the period afterward. Age 0-18? The nativist theory of language asserts that humans are biologically programmed to acquire language and will learn whatever language languages they are exposed to during the critical period.

Answer 338

P=W/t=F*v v-velocity

Answer 339

1. Bias on part of the study: experimental bias, sampling bias and question-order bias 2. Bias on the party of the subjects: Response bias, social desirability bias, Hawthorne effect.

Answer 340

Describes the tendency of research participants to provide the most favorable or acceptable responses to research questions. Participants may overemphasize positive behaviors while downplaying or underreporting undesirable behaviors

Answer 341

Occurs when researchers deliberately or inadvertently influence the result. Often this bias lead to result that confirm what the researcher was expecting

Answer 342

Explicit memory is memory for facts and events that can be consciously or intentionally recalled, including semantic and episodic memory (personal experiences) Implicit memories is memory for things that can’t be consciously recalled, such as skills, tasks, emotions and reflexes

Answer 343

Heaviest: guanosine, Adenosine Thymidine Lightest; cystidine

Answer 344

No viscosity (no tendency to resist flow l), laminar flow, Incompressible (uniform density)

Answer 345

External pressure applied to an ideal fluid is uniformly transmitted to all regions of the fluid. As a result, the ratios of any force and the area to which it is applied must be equal. P=F/A F1/A1=F2/A2

Answer 346

ROY G BIV (750-400)

Answer 347

Conjugation decreases the size of the HOMO-LUMO energy gap and leads to absorption photons with a lower energy

Answer 348

Base peak is the highest abundance peak which corresponds to the cation with the greatest stability and or relative rate of formation and it can provide structural clues toward the identity of the original molecule.

Answer 349

Is normally molecular ion which is the original molecule less of mass of one electron

Answer 350

Are small organelles specialized to facilitate certain oxidation reduction reactions involving peroxides as well as the metabolism of specific lipids. In addition, reactions in peroxisomes can facilitate detoxification of harmful substances within cells

Answer 351

Are proteins that influence transcription by binding to specific DNA sequences in the promoter region for target gene. They bind those specific DNA sequence with much greater affinity than other stretches of DNA and such binding can facilitate transcription in which case the TF is called activator. In other cases TF binding can repress transcription in which case TF is referred as a repressor

Answer 352

Is a type of learning that occurs when the likelihood of an organism repeating a behavior is influenced by the outcome of that behavior (eg reward or punishment).

Answer 353

In classical conditioning, the strength of the conditioned response tends to follow a characteristic pattern over time: 1. Acquisition- refers to the learning that takes place as an association is formed between unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus 2. Extinction - occurs when a conditioned response gradually stops occurring in absence of the unconditioned stimulus 3. Spontaneous recovery - occurs when an extinct response reappears after a period of time

Answer 354

Is a common component of electrical circuits that stores electric charge between equally but oppositely charged conductive surfaces (plates) separated by a fixed distance (d). Capacitors generate electric potential (voltage) by storing charges. The quantity of charge stored by a capacitor is a product of capacitance (capacitor strength) and the voltage generated by charge storage. Q=VC

Answer 355

State dependent memory effect occurs when it is easier to retrieve a memory while in the same mood as when the memory was encoded. Context dependent memory effect occur when it is easier to retrieve a memory while in the same physical environment as when the memory was encoded

Answer 356

Declines: 1. Episodic memory 2. Fluid intelligence (ability to creatively solve new problems and see new patterns) Remain stable: 1. Semantic memory and procedural memory 2. Crystallized intelligence (ability to apply established skills and knowledge)

Answer 357

The initial rate of decay is highest right after material is first learned, then plateaus one time unless the material is reviewed.

Answer 358

James Lange theory suggests that the physiological response elicited by a stimulus produces emotion. Schachter singer theory is similar expect for an additional component of cognitive interpretation of the psychological response. This addresses the major limitation of James Lange theory which is the fact that most emotions correspond with nearly identical psychological responses. Canon bard theory suggests that psychological and emotional responses occur simultaneously and independently

Answer 359

The limbic system is a network of brain regions that are involved in emotion, learning and memory. It is composed of Amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, thalamus, Cingulate gyrus

Answer 360

Is a small, almond shaped structure located deep within the temporal lobe on both sides of the brain. It functions in the processing of primal emotions (eg fear, anger, sexual arousal) and the encoding of other emotionally charged memories. It plays key role in fear conditioning.

Answer 361

Contain a high concentration of dopamine producing neurons, the function of which it to produce smooth, purposeful movements and inhibit excessive movement. Loss of dopamine producing neurons in the substantia nigra of the basal ganglia results in the characteristic resting tremor seen in Parkinson disease

Answer 362

1. Cognitive - mental processing accompanying an emotion and involved in appraisal of the situation. Examples; thoughts, belief, expectations and rationalization 2. Behavioral- immediate outward reaction to an emotion that is involuntary and automatic. Examples smiling, gasping 3. Physiological- bodily processes that accompany an emotion. Examples: heart rate changes, respiration rate changes and sweating

Answer 363

Junctions are points in a circuit where three or more circuit elements are connected. According to Kirchhoff’s law, the sum of all currents entering a junction equal the sum of all currents exiting that junction Iexit. I enter=I exit

Answer 364

1. Psychoanalytic -unconscious conflicts between impulses and social restraints 2. Trait - consistent and enduring personality dispositions 3. Humanistic - inner drive toward growth and self actualization 4. Behavioral- learning from the environment 5. Social cognitive- cognitive expectations and social learning/modeling 6. Biological - genetic predispositions, brain structure/function, evolution

Answer 365

Personality is the result of a combination of traits are relatively stable over time. This theory doesn’t account for external influences or personality or for the reasons underlying personality traits. Major trait theorists: Allport - trait theory, cardinal, central and secondary traits. Cattel- 16personality factors Eysenck - PEN theory, (psychosis, extraversion, neuroticism) Costa& McCrae- big five or five factor model. Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

Answer 366

Neuroticism or emotional instability is characterized by a tendency to experience or express negative emotions (anxiety, anger, fear, sadness). Individual who score high on this tend to find common challenges (eg getting flat tire) hopelessly difficult and are more easily agitated by stressors.

Answer 367

Personality results from the interaction between the id, ego, and superego. The id is selfish, compelling us to seek pleasure and avoid pain. The ego is realistic, compelling us to behave in ways that are socially acceptable and acts as a mediator between the id and superego. Superego is moralistic and idealistic, compelling us toward perfection.

Answer 368

Classical and operant conditioning, observational learning and cognitive therapy to treat varies concerns including phobias, anxiety, and maladaptive personality traits. Employ various techniques including: desensitization, rewarding healthy behaviors, observing others and challenging and replacing maladaptive self talk

Answer 369

Defense mechanisms are largely unconscious means of dealing with anxiety or stress, often through distorting or ignoring aspects of reality. 1. Projection - attributing one’s unacceptably thoughts/behaviors to someone or something else. Eg calling the sidewalk stupid after tripping 2. Regression- behaving as if much younger to avoid unacceptable thoughts/behaviors. Eg moving back in with parents to avoid adulthood stress. 3. Displacement- taking out unacceptable thoughts/behaviors on safe target. Eg punching a pillow when angry about being fired 4. Sublimation - transforming unacceptable thoughts/behaviors to acceptable thoughts/behaviors. Eg taking up boxing as a hobby to vent anger

Answer 370

P=IV Ohms law: V=IR P=V(squired)/R

Answer 371

Same voltage through battery and resistors. Isum=I1+I2 etc

Answer 372

Sn1 reaction occurs in two steps and is NOT steriospecific whereas Sn2 reactions occur in a single step and is stereospecific. In Sn1, nucleophile can add to either the top or bottom of the planar carbocation, Leading formation of two products. In Sn2, nucleophile always attacks on the side opposite the leaving group (backside) causing inversion, forms only one product

Answer 373

They are membrane proteins that facilitate the movement of ions across the membrane. These proteins are closed at rest, with the passage of ions blocked by a closed gate. Presence of agonist, which binds to proteins as ligands in order to activate them, induces confirmational changes that results in opening of the gate and the passage of ions through the proteins themselves

Answer 374

Delta G=G products - G reactants Spontaneous reactions have a lower free energy than the reactants. The lowest free energy is found at the end of a spontaneous event or chain of events

Answer 375

Is the synthesis of complex biological molecules from complex constituents and it requires energy input. Energy provided by cleaving high energy phosphodiester bonds in nucleotide triphosphates such as ATP, GTP or UTP. These cleavage events either release the gamma phosphate as inorganic phosphate or they release the gamma and beta phosphate as pyrophosphate. Alpha phosphate remains attached to the NTP. Three phosphate on NTP designated as the alpha phosphate being linked to the nucleoside and gamma phosphate being farthest away from nucleoside.

Answer 376

Alpha decay- ejects two protons, and two neutrons bound together as an alpha particle (helium nucleus) Original atom minus 2 protons and helium Beta decay - Beta minus decay -ejects electron, atomic number increases by one Beta plus decay- ejects positrons, atomic number decreases by one Electron capture - electron added, atomic number decreased by one

Answer 377

1. Arrhenius: acid H+ donor Base- OH- donor 2. Brønsted-Lowry: Acid H+ donor Base H+ acceptor 3. Lewis: Acid electron acceptor Base electron donor

Answer 378

Is energy that is stored based on an object’s position relative to a referenced point within gravitational field. It is Often referred as the energy of position. Solids: PE=mgh Fluids: PE/volume=density*g*h

Answer 379

Glycolysis consumes 2 NAD+ to produce two NADH and two pyruvate. (In cystosol) Additional two is required to convert the pyruvate to acetyl CoA (in mitochondria)

Answer 380

An imine is an analogue of ketones and aldehydes that contains a carbon nitrogen double bond. Imines are formed ketone or aldehyde and NH3 or primary amine via an acid catalyzed addition of the amine followed by an acid catalyzed dehydration.

Answer 381

From aldehyde using NH3 and KCN. First step is Protonation of the carbonyl oxygen by H3O+ followed by nucleophilic attack of the carbonyl carbon by NH3 resulting in dehydration and imine formation. Then hydration, followed by nuclepphilic attack from CN-, then Protonation by H3O+

Answer 382

Is a biomedical model of depression. Central to this hypothesis is the idea that depletion of monoamine neurotransmitters in the central nervous system directly causes depression symptoms. The monoamines are serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, the have a single amine group in their molecular structure and are associated with emotion regulation

Answer 383

It is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that involves the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra of the basal ganglia, resulting in motor abnormalities ( resting tremor; muscle rigidity, bradykinesia, shuffling gait, lack of coordination) and symptoms of depression. Basal ganglia is involved in the selection and execution of voluntary motor programs.

Answer 384

Ventral tegmental area which produces dopamine. Plus Nucleus accumbens, and prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus and many other structures of the limbic system

Answer 385

Sp3 3000 Sp2 3100 Sp 3300

Answer 386

Total entropy of isolated system will always increase over time during any spontaneous process. Entropy assesses disorder and it is a measure of extent to which the energy of the system is unavailable to do work. Delta S=q/T

Answer 387

Heat capacity C of a sample (or object) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the ENTIRE sample by 1C. In contrast, the specific heat capacity Cp of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of substance by 1C. Consequently, two objects that are made of the same substance but have different masses will have a different heat capacity but an identical specific heat capacity.

Answer 388

The brush border of the small intestine is a microvilli-covered epithelial surface where digestion and absorption of nutrients occur. The small intestine is composed of duodenum, jejunum, ileum. Duodenum is involved in digestion of nutrients, and the jejunum and ileum are involved in absorption of these nutrients.

Answer 389

Cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum As indigestible materials move through the large intestine, peristaltic contraction speed decreases

Answer 390

RAS is a multiorgan molecular cascade activated when BP falls. A drop in BP causes the juxtaglomerular cells in the kidney to release renin, enzyme that cleaves the plasma protein angiotensinogen to form angiotensin 1. Angiotensin converting enzyme then cleaves angiotensin 1 to form angiotensin 2 which ultimately raises BP by inducing both the release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex and constriction of arterioles.

Answer 391

It loses 2 electrons to get +2 charge. Elemental cobalt has 9 valence electrons, [Ar]3d^7 4s^2 It loses 2 electrons from 4s because those electrons have higher reactivity, so it is: [Ar]3d^7

Answer 392

1 µm=10^-6 1 nm=10^-9

Mcat Flashcards

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