Mcat 3 Flashcards

Question

How long- bones grow in length?

Answer 1

By process of where chondrocytes (cartilage producing cells) divide and produce collagen to which calcium phosphates attaches to form hardened bone. This process stops when linear growth of long bones is complete. Chondrocytes located at the interface between long shaft (diaphysis) and the widened ends (epiphyses) of long bones

Answer 2

Is the most inferior portion of the uterus and serves as the opening into the vagina. During childbirth the cervix thins and the fetus passes through the cervix into the vagina.

Answer 3

It is muscular organ responsible for protecting and nourishing the embryo and fetus. It is lined with inner layer called endometrium which changes thickness at different points in the monthly uterine cycle. It has thick layer of smooth muscle (myometrium) involved in contractions during child birth.

Answer 4

Are signaling molecules that change patterns of embryonic cell differentiation in a concentration dependent manner. Interfering with the signaling pathways induced by morphogens can change patterns of differentiation in an embryo.

Answer 5

Is a natural aging process during which cell acquire damage and eventually diminish in function over time. Over time this aging process can cause cells to diminish in function. This may result from the degradation of chromosomes ends (telomeres) that occur over time. But some cells (eg stem cells express an enzyme telomerase, a reverse transcriptase that allow synthesis of chromosomes ends and the prevention of sensescence (cell immortalization)

Answer 6

Occurs when the cells adapt to aging in away that allow them to continue dividing indefinitely, unlike typical (mortal) cells.

Answer 7

Molecules called cyclind and cyclin dependent kinases. If cells have abnormalities that can’t be repaired, these cells will undergo apoptosis rather than completing the cell cycle.

Answer 8

Prophase - characterized by condensation of chromatin and nuclear envelope disintegration Metaphase- in which chromosomes align in the metaphase plate (central region of the dividing cell) and become attached to spindle fibers. Anaphase - in which shortening of spindle fibers causes sister chromatids to separate and migrate away from one another. Telophase- characterized by reversal of condensation of chromatin and nuclear envelope reformation

Answer 9

Is the regrowth of the same functional tissues or organs previously present in an organism after loss due to injury. For example the human liver can regenerate after it has been damaged.

Answer 10

To determine the nucleotide sequences of DNA

Answer 11

1. DNA is isolated and cut into smaller fragments by restriction enzymes 2. The purified DNA fragments are separated by size via gel electrophoresis and then denatured. 3. DNA fragments are transferred from the gel to a blotting membrane and immobilized 4. The membrane is incubated with a single strand of DNA probe complementary to the DNA sequence of interest. If the sequence of interest is present, the probe will bind to it (hybridize). The label allows regional detection of the probe. 5. Sample is washed to remove unbound prompts 6. The researchers determine if the visual signal is present. A visual signal indicates that hybridization occurred, meaning the sample contain the DNA sequence of interest. The lack of visual signal means the target DNA sequence is absent.

Answer 12

A gland that produces prostatic fluid containing enzymes necessary to prevent the coagulation of sperm in the vagina.

Answer 13

Glands that secrete thick, alkaline mucus to lubricate the tip of the penis. The alkalinity of the mucus neutralize acids in the urine to protect the sperm from the acidic environment of the urethra

Answer 14

Accessory glands that produce the largest portion of seminal fluid

Answer 15

Fertilization - formation of single celled zygote Morula formation - zygotes undergoes successive mitotic divisions (cleavage) to form a ball of cells known as a morula Blastulation - the morula is transformed into a hollow ball of cells knows as the blastocyst. At this stage, embryo implant in the uterine wall. The blastocyst consist of two layers, the trophoblast (hollow cell sphere) and inner cell mass Gastrulation - the double layered blastocyst becomes a triple layered gastrula. It is through gastrulation that developing embryo forms germ layers. Neurulation - nervous system develops. Neural tube becomes the central nervous system. The remaining portions of neural fold are know as the neural crest, give rise to most of the peripheral nervous system

Answer 16

1. Sperm reaches oocyte- the sperm weaves past follicular cells the corona radiata 2. Sperm contact- sperm binds receptors in the Zona pellucida, a thick matrix of glycoproteins that surrounds the oocyte 3. Acrosome reaction- the acrosome is a specialized vesicle filled with hydrolytic enzyme, located in the sperm head. When this enzymes are released, the zona pellucida is degraded, enabling the sperm to reach the oocyte’s plasma membrane 4. Fusion - the plasma membranes of the oocyte and sperm are fused. 5. Sperm contents enter oocyte - the nucleus, mitochondria and a pair of centrioles enter the oocyte 6. Cortical reaction - the contents of the cortical granules in the oocytes are released into the space between plasma membrane and the zona pellucida, fusing with the plasma membraneS this hardens the zona pellucida into a protective envelope, blocking additional sperm from entering

Answer 17

Is the formation of nervous systems. The notochord, a mesodermal cylindrical structure, releases signals promoting the extenders above to thicken and form neural plate. Neural plate folds inward, forming neural groove and then edges of the plate (neural folds) converge to create the neural tube. Neural tube is the precursor to CNA, then punches off the ectoderm. The remaining sections of neural folds not included in the neural tube comprise the neural crest which migrate away from the tube and toward the periphery of embryo to give rise to most of the PNS

Answer 18

Ectoderm- give rise to the nervous system and develops into the integumentary system which includes hair, skin, nails and the lining of the mouth, nostrils and anus. Epidermis, neurons, melanocytes Mesoderm - gives rise to the circulatory system, muscles, bones and parts of urinary and reproductive system. Myocytes, osteocytes, and erthrocytes. Endoderm- gives rise to accessory digestive organs (eg liver, pancreas) as well as the lining (epithelium) of the digestive and respiratory tracts. Mucous cells, islet beta cell, aveolar cells

Answer 19

Totipotent stem cells, found in only in zygote and in the embryo up to its eight cell stage. Can give raise to both placental and fetal cells. Pluripotent stem cells are the cells of inner cell mass of blastocyst. Can give rise to only fetal cells. (Any three primary germ layers. Multipotent - found in both adult and fetus. It is specific resident cell are preserved in each developing tissue and function to replace damaged/ages cells throughout the organism’s life span. They are able to differentiate only into the specialized cells of certain tissues

Answer 20

Cell fate is influenced by inductibe signaling between cells in the early embryo. In inductive signaling, an inducer (the signaling cell) releases chemical signals that act on competent neighboring cells by regulating the expression of specific genes required for cell determination.

Answer 21

Head - containing acrosome (encapsulates the tip of the nucleus and is Rich in specialized lysosome like enzyme for piercing the outer shell of an oocyte during fertilization) and nucleus. Mid piece - packed with mitochondria, also contains pair of central micro tubules and extend down the length of the flagellum. Tail

Answer 22

Spermatogonia undergo mitosis to two daughter cells. One remains spermatogonia stem cell to maintain the line and the other one differentiates into spermatocyte which goes under meiosis 1 and 2 become spermatids. Then it becomes matured spermatozoa through series of morphological changes. Spermatogonium- spermatocyte- spermatid- spermatozoon

Answer 23

Is a hormone driven process and it involves mitosis and 2 meiotic divisions. Before birth (5 months gestation) oogonia (germ cells, diploid) goes through mitosis and become primary oocytes. It goes though 1st meiotic division but arrested in meiosis 1 until puberty. During puberty normal mentrual cycle hormones stimulate some primary oocytes to resume differentiating into secondary oocyte. However, prior to fertilization secondary oocytes are arrested in metaphase II of meiosis.

Answer 24

They involve cells that undergo meiosis 1 and 2. However, oogenesis in females begins in the embryo and ends at menopause. Whereas spermatogensis in males doesn’t begin till puberty and continues throughout male’s life. They occur without interruption and produces similarly sized daughter cells. 4haploid sperm cells results. Oogenesis arrested at certain stages and produce unequal size. 1haploid ovum plus 2-3 polar bodies that eventually degenerate.

Answer 25

By sensing blood volume, osmolarity and pressure. Special sensors ( like stretch receptors) monitor the degree of strain stretching in the heart(blood volume) and transmit this information to the hypothalamus which then sends signal to posterior pituitary to adjust ADH.

Answer 26

FLAT PEG FSH LH Adernocorticad simulating hormones Thyroid simulating hormone Prolactin - milk production Endorphin G- growth hormone PEG- direct hormone

Answer 27

ADH antiduratic hormone Oxytocin Those are made in hypothalamus and stored in posterior pituitary gland

Answer 28

Anterior pituitary is derived from epithelial cells from the developing roof of mouth and contain grandular endocrine cells. Posterior pituitary is derived from ectodermal neural tissues in the developing brain and doesn’t contain glandular endocrine cells. Its hormones are transported to axon terminals and stored in vesicles. Depolarization causes release of hormones into blood vessels.

Answer 29

Leptin - appetite suppressed Ghrelin - appetite stimulated

Answer 30

Peptide hormone - small proteins, consist of amino acids linked via peptide bonds Steroid hormones - are lipids derived from cholesterol that has been modified via a series of chemical reactions Amino acid derived hormones - molecules derived from either tyrosine or tryptophan Another scheme of classification of hormone is based on their influence on other hormones: Direct - act directly on target cells to elicit nonendocrine responses Tropic - can target endocrine tissues to influence the secretion of another hormone Some hormones act as both direct and as tropic hormones

Answer 31

Consist of polar head region and non polar tail region. The polar head consists of glycerol, a phosphate and terminal group that is linked to phosphate. Non polar tail consists of two fatty acid lined to the remaining two carbons of glycerol.

Answer 32

Hexokinase Phosphofructosekinase 1 Pyruvate kinase Those can’t be used in gluconeogeneis so they are bypassed by distinct enzyme catalyzed reactions unique to gluconeogenesis. Glucose 6 phosphatase Fructose 1,6 biphosphatase Pyruvate carboxylase, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase

Answer 33

The thyroid gland is responsible for helping to regulate basal metabolism and calcium level. The thyroid gland secretes calcitonin, synthesized from c cells. It reduces free calcium levels in the blood. It reduces osteoclast activity It reduces ca reabsorption in kidneys. It antagonize parathyroid hormone which serves to increase the free calcium levels in blood.

Answer 34

Maintains fluid homeostasis when blood pressure is low by stimulating the insertion of aquaporins in the membrane of kidney collecting duct cells. This leads to increased water reabsorption which raises the overall blood volume and blood pressure.

Answer 35

Aldosterone promotes Na+ reabsorption in distal tumble and collecting duct. Interstitial fluid becomes more concentrated, water reabsorption increases via osmosis. Filtrate becomes more negatively charged due to Na+ reabsorption, promoting secretion of K+ and H+

Answer 36

1. Peptide hormones: dissolved in plasma of the blood, receptor located on cell membrane, after binding activation of second messenger system happens. Examples: insulin, glucogen,vasopressin (ADH), adrenocorticotropic hormone. 2. Steroid hormone: bound to carrier protein in blood, receptors located in cytosol or nucleus, in response regulation of gene expression happens. Examples: cortisol, androgens, estrogens. 3. Amino acid derivative hormones: 1. Catecholamines: dissolved in plasma of the blood, receptors located on cell membranes. Activation of second messenger system happens. Examples: norepinephrine epinephrine 2. Thyroid hormones: bound to carrier protein in the blood, receptor located in nucleus, regulation of gene expression, examples: thyroxine T4, triiodothyrine T3

Answer 37

Hormones are secreted into the bloodstream by specialized cells and transported throughout the body via the circulatory system. Once the hormone reaches its target tissue; it alters cellular function in one of the following ways: Water soluble (hydrophilic) hormones generally bind to a cell surface receptor and initiate a second messenger cascade, leading to changes in protein activity (eg enzyme, membrane channels) Water insoluble (hydrophobic) hormones generally diffuse across the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane and bind to cytosolic receptor to ultimately regulate gene expression in the nucleus. Hormones can effect the function of diverse and distant tissues in the body. Any cell type that expresses a hormone receptor will respond to serum levels of the hormone

Answer 38

1. Regulation of blood glucose via glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis 2. Storage of glycogen, mineral (iron) and vitamins 3. Synthesis of macromolecules such as plasma proteins (clotting factors and albumin), fats, ketone bodies and cholesterol. 4. Production and secretion of bile 5. Breakdown/ detoxification of numerous drugs and metabolic waste products (bilirubin, ammonia)

Answer 39

Is the brain structure located inferior to the thalamus that regulates the synthesis and secretion of multiple classes of hormones. It services as the interface between the nervous and endocrine systems by processing both cortical inputs from brain and sensing the plasma concentration of numerous hormones.

Answer 40

Testosterone production in males is related to the presence of the sex determining region Y (SRY) gene on Y chromosomes, a sex chromosome that exists alongside one X chromosome in male cells. It controls male sex determination and promotes development of testes where testosterone is produced.

Answer 41

Glucagon and epinephrine. 1. Autonomic nervous system: Hypothalamus sends sympathetic nerve impulses to adrenal medulla which secretes epinephrine in response. Epinephrine promotes glycogenolysis. 2. Hormone glucagon is secreted from the alpha cells of the pancreas. It promotes gluconeogenesis (the synthesis of glucose from other molecules) and glycogenolysis

Answer 42

Glucagon acts on target cells by binding its stimulators G protein coupled receptor on the cell membrane and including the adenylate cyclase/cAMP second messenger. The G protein attached to transmembrane cell surface receptor is composed of three subunits alpha beta and gamma.When inactive, the alpha subunit is bound to GDP which is then replaced with GTP on ligand receptor binding. The GTP bound G a dissociate from the beta and gamma subunits and proceeds to activate adenylate cyclase, an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cAMP, a second messenger. aCAMP then activates protein kinase A which subsequently phosphorylates the proteins necessary to produce ligand specific physiological effects.

Answer 43

In energy rich state (high concentration of glucose and lipids), hormone Leptin is released by white adipose tissue. This triggers feelings of satiety by communicating to the hypothalamus that the stomach is full thereby suppressing appetite. In energy poor state ghrelin is released by stomach gasteric cells to trigger hunger and food seeking behavior via the hypothalamus.

Answer 44

Delta cells of pancreas produces them. It is a hormone that has a generalized effect on digestive function and has been shown to suppress insulin and glucagon release

Answer 45

During inspiration external intercostals contract, elevate rib cage, reducing the pressure by increasing intrapulmonary volume. During expiration internal intercostals contract, depress rib cage, increasing the pressure by decreasing intrapulmonary volume. The external intercostals are inspiratory muscles The internal intercostal are expiratory muscles

Answer 46

To their structure and extensive surface area. The small size and sheer number of alveoli in the lungs provide an enormous surface area available for gas exchange. The destruction of alveolar walls in emphysema is expected to decrease the lungs’ ability to perform respiratory gas exchange

Answer 47

Is due to allergen hypersensitivity can be identified by temporary airway inflammation which causes the bronchioles to narrow. The narrowing of airways increase resistance to airflow which decreases the volumetric rate of forcibly exhaled air. The narrow airways May also trap air in the lungs, decreasing the total volume air that can be exhaled

Answer 48

PCO2 in the blood. PCO2 of blood sensed by central and peripheral chemoreceptors. These receptors directly detect the [H+] in the blood, which is dependent on the perils pressure CO2 in the blood through the bicarbonate buffer system. CO2+H2O=H2CO3=HCO3- +H+

Answer 49

Is the thin space between the lungs and the thoracic wall. The contraction of the diaphragm and the elevation of the rib cage decreases the pressure in the intrapleural space, causing the lungs to expand.

Answer 50

Is primarily initiated by the diaphragm l. The diaphragm is a sheet of skeletal muscle below the lungs and when it is relaxed it curves upward to adopt a dome shape. When the diaphragm contracts, it flattens, pulling down on the lungs and causing them to expand. In addition, the external intercostal muscles ( aground of muscles at the rib cage) and scalenes (muscles attached to ribs near the neck) can contract to elevate the rib cage (thereby preventing the diaphragm from pulling the lower ribs inward) and further expand the lungs

Answer 51

Are forms of forced expiration that help clear trapped particles from the pharynx

Answer 52

Are hair like organelles that are found in some specialized cells. They are involved in the defense mechanisms of the respiratory system. - nasal hairs- fillet out relatively large particles before they enter the respiratory tract. - mucociliary escalator- specialized cells lining the upper respiratory tract produce mucus, a thick and sticky secretion that traps inhaled bacteria and particles. Ciliated cells beat synchronously to sweep foreign bodies trapped in mucus up the pharynx. From the pharynx, those foreign bodies can be coughed out or swallowed and destroyed by the harsh acidity of the stomach -phagocytosis - alveolar macrophages are the type of white blood cell that engulf and digest

Answer 53

1. Formation of the platelet plug- endothelial damage exposes connective tissue (collagen fibers) normally present outside the blood vessel. Circulating cell fragments called platelets (derived from the bone marrow) readily bind to these collagen fibers, aggregating to form a platelet plug. In addition, bound platelets and endothelial cells continue to release signals that enhance platelet aggregation. 2. Strengthening of the clot- clotting factors are specialized proteins that become activated in response to platelet aggregation and signaling factors outside the vessel. Activated clotting factors induce processes that lead to the formation of enzyme thrombin which induces protein strands to form an adhesive mesh like structure over the platelet plugs

Answer 54

A technique in which functional gene is introduced into a patient’s cells to replace a mutant gene. The new gene can the. Be transcribed and translated into functional proteins. A common gene therapy method uses retroviral vectors to insert functional gene copies into the stem cells of patients exhibiting specific genetic mutations

Answer 55

Are the smallest of the blood vessels. Their small diameter and thin walls allow for the efficient exchange of gases and water with the interstitial fluid. The balance between several forces determines the net direction of fluid movement in capillary beds. Capillary hydrostatic pressure Capillary oncotic pressure Interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure Interstitial fluid oncotic pressure

Answer 56

Systolic- heart muscles contract and pump blood into arteries. Arterial pressure increases. Increased volume of blood flowing through the arteries on contraction of the heart exerts increased pressure on the arterial walls. Arterial blood pressure is highest during systole and is measured as the systolic blood pressure. Diastolic pressure - heart muscles relax and fills with blood returning to the heart via veins. Arterial pressure decreases and it is lowest.

Answer 57

1. Plasma- 90% water 10%- electrolytes, gases, hormones, nutrients, metabolic water, blood proteins 2. White blood cells and platelets 3. Red blood cells

Answer 58

Hemoglobin consists of four subunits each of which can exist in either of two conformations: T- tense, low oxygen affinity R- relaxed, high oxygen affinity Oxygen’s binding to one subunit stabilizes the subunit’s R state. The bound subunit then positively cooperates with other subunits inducing them to change from T to the R conformation and making oxygen finding easier

Answer 59

During exercise, individuals experience an increase in the H+ concentration in the blood. (ATP +H2O =ADH +P+ H+) Accumulated H+ ions can bind to hemoglobin and recur its affinity for oxygen in a phenomenon known as the Bohr effect. This reduced affinity appears as the right shift in the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curves

Answer 60

It decreases oxygen affinity by stabilizing the oxyhemoglobin conformation. Increasing concentrations of 2,3 BPG produce a right shift in the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve and faster oxygen delivery to tissues. Bisphosphoglycerate mutase converts 1,3 Bisphosphoglycerate into 2,3 Bisphosphoglycerate

Answer 61

It signifies an increase in the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. This affinity is inversely related to CO2 and H+ concentrations. Therefore left shift in the ODC often indicates lower CO2 and/or acid levels in blood

Answer 62

Oxidation stress occurs when reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide are overly abundant near cell membrane. ROS can react with lipids in cell membrane and cause membrane ruptured also known as lysis. When this occurs in red blood cells; hemoglobin can leak out as and denature, becoming nonfunctional and causing hemolytic anemia

Answer 63

Measured as a percentage of the total blood volume, indicates the amount of red blood cells in a blood sample. Hemolysis induced by oxidative stress can reduce hematocrit

Answer 64

It collects protein containing fluid leaked from blood capillaries and transports it back to the bloodstream. In addition, large lipid droplets absorbed by the small intestine are also transported to the bloodstream via lymph vessels. Fluid is collected by lymph capillaries, flows into larger lymph vessels and is transported into lymph ducts that drain into veins near the heart. It also involved in the immune system

Answer 65

Increased alveolar gas exchange increases blood pH.

Answer 66

Ventilation is movement of air into and out of the lungs, facilitate gas exchange in alveoli. Anatomical features (eg body position, amount of adipose tissue) can influence respiratory and cardiovascular functions.

Answer 67

Is the volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute. This volume is pumped by the right ventricle to the lungs and by the left ventricles to the rest of the tissues in the body. Cardiac output = mean arterial pressure/ vascular resistance

Answer 68

Cecum- receives chyme from the ileum of the small intestine Colon- absorb water and electrolytes from material not digested by the small intestine. Concentrates feces (human waste product composed of water, indigestible material, bacteria, bile and enzymes. Rectum - stores feces until excretion through the final opening in the rectum, the anus.

Answer 69

Microfilaments 7nm Intermediate filaments 10nm Microtubules 25nm

Answer 70

Composed of several protein types (eg keratin, lumen) and perform: - work with Microfilaments to determine cellular shape. - make up the nuclear lamina (inner lining of nuclear envelope) - assist in anchoring organelles to specific compartments within the cell - provide crucial support for the cell to be able to withstand mechanical forces. (Eg compression)

Answer 71

Are made out of actin protein subunits organized into double stranded rods. They help determine the overall shape of a cell and assist in some cellular locomotion. They also responsible for muscular contractions and forms the cleavage furrow during cytokinesis.

Answer 72

Are made of alternating alpha and beta tubulin subunits organized into hollow tubes. They form mitotic spindle during the cell division process. They also involved in movement within the cell. Also forms cilia and flagella.

Answer 73

Mouth Esophagus Stomach - chyme is formed Small intestine Large intestine

Answer 74

The diversity of intestinal bacteria (gut flora), the surface area of the small intestine, and the functions of intestinal proteins (digestive enzyme, nutrient transporters, structure proteins)

Answer 75

Kidney Ureter Bladder Urethra

Answer 76

It is under control of both smooth and skeletal muscle along the urinary tract (the system for removing urine from the body). Layer of smooth muscle lining the bladder known as the detrusor muscle is relaxed while urine is stored in the bladder. During this storage process, two sphincter muscles are contracted so that urine can’t exit the body: 1. The proximal sphincter muscle is known as the internal urethral sphincter (IUS). The IUS is composed of smooth muscle and is under involuntary control by the autonomic nervous system 2. The distal sphincter or the external urethral sphincter EUS is compressed of skeletal muscle and is under voluntary control by the somatic nervous system.

Answer 77

Food digestion leads to increased glucose level and stimulates specialized cells of the pancreas called beta cells to release insulin. It is a glucose metabolism hormone that decreases the concentration of glucose in the blood. It accomplishes by promoting glucose uptake by tissues (eg adipose, muscle) and decreasing liver glucose production (via gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis) while at the same time promoting liver glycogen formation (glycogenesis)

Answer 78

The cavity ( hooson zai) of intestine. Digested food is inside. Surrounding it there is epithelial cells, surrounding that interstitial fluid, then capillary.

Answer 79

They absorbed by intestinal epithelial cells and transported into surrounding interstitial fluid before diffusing into capillaries, increasing osmotic pressure interstitial fluid and subsequently in the blood plasma

Answer 80

Ascending limb of henle is highly permeable for NaCl but impermeable for water. Initially NaCl is passively reabsorbed into the medulla as filtrate moves up the ascending limb. However, as the ascending limb nears the cortex, NaCl is actively transported from the filtrate into the medulla, preserving the medulla’s high salt concentration

Answer 81

Electrolytes (eg sodium, chloride) and additional water from the mass of undigested material

Answer 82

Elisa can detect and quantify proteins. Initially a primary antibody (linked to reporter enzyme) is added, which bind to the antigen (protein). The samples are washed to remove unbound proteins, and the reporter enzyme is added. The enzyme-substrate reaction creates a product that results in a quantifiable/ detectable signal

Answer 83

They bind to specific DNA sequences and control the rate of gene transcription. They are initially transcribed in the nucleus but are translated in the cytoplasm. Inactive transcription factors which are not bound to their DNA substrate, are found in the cytoplasm. However, during cell signaling, the nuclear localization sequence found in transcription factors allows nuclear import proteins to direct transcription factors back to the nucleus via nuclear pores to alter gene expression.

Answer 84

The liver synthesizes bile, a nonenzymatic solution stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine to aid in the mechanical digestion of lipids. Bile is composed of bile salts, bile pigments and cholesterol. Bile salts act as detergents to solubilize fats during digestion, they possess both a hydrophobic region that associates with the surface of lipids and a hydrophilic region that associates with water. Consequently, bile salts break down large lipid globules into smaller droplets (micelles) in a process known as emulsification. Emulsified lipids chemically digested by pancreatic lipase

Answer 85

By gastric juice which is composed primarily of hydrochloric acid which is secreted by parietal cells in the stomach. This acidic environment is required for protein digestion and to kill harmful bacteria. When gastric juice mixed with food (chyme) enters the duodenum, it is neutralized by bicarbonate ions (produced in the pancreas) and bile (released from storage in the gallbladder).

Answer 86

At certain sections along the gastrointestinal tract, sphincters or rings of muscle, divide the tract into segments with distinct functions. Ingested food passes from the esophagus into the stomach through the cardiac sphincter and from the stomach into the duodenum through the pyloric sphincter.

Answer 87

1. G cells (gastrin) signals parietal cells to secrete hydrochloric acid. 2. Parietal cells: A. Hydrochloric acid B. Intrinsic factor (aids in absorption of vitamin b12 in the ileum. 3. Chef cells- A. Pepsinogen B. Gastric lipase 4. Mucous cells - mucus and bicarbonate, protects the stomach walls from auto digestion by gastric juice, which contains acids and proteases

Answer 88

Peritoneum comprises two membranes that line the abdomen; the parietal layer which line the abdominal wall, and the visceral layer which covers the abdominal organs. The peritoneal cavity is a potential space between the parietal and visceral layers of the peritoneum.

Answer 89

Is the area between anus and the scrotum (in males) or vulva (in females).

Answer 90

Bile is a substance synthesized by the liver and stored by the gallbladder. When released into the duodenal lumen, it aids in the mechanical digestion of lipids. Other functions of the liver include blood glucose regulation, macromolecule synthesis, molecular storage and detoxification.

Answer 91

It occurs across epithelial cells. Any undigestible material passes to the large intestine

Answer 92

The large intestine contains many bacterial species that aid digestive process. Some of these bacteria can process ingested foods that would be undigestable otherwise into molecules that can then be absorbed by the body and used for energy. Other bacterial species in the large intestine synthesize certain vitamins.

Answer 93

The majority of genetic mutations are neutral which means they don’t effect the fitness of an organism. Within species, these neutral mutations are randomly fixed or lost due to genetic drift and occur at fairly constant rate over time

Answer 94

Is based on the theory that most genetic mutations are neutral and occur at fairly constant rate across organisms. It allows researchers to measure evolutionary time by analyzing random changes in the genome over time. For example species that diverged more recently from a common ancestor have accumulated fewer mutations across the short time and are therefore more genetically similar to one another (more closely related).

Answer 95

1. DNA synthesis occurs prior 2. In a given organism, parent cells have the same chromosomes number 3. Divided into same stages PMAT 4. One parent fell undergoes cell division to produce multiple daughter cells

Answer 96

1. Parallel evolution- occurs when two species more closely related (descended from a recent common ancestor) continuous to evolve the same characteristics to adapt to similar environments. 2. Divergent evolution- occurs when two species descended from a recent common ancestor inhabit contrasting environments and evolve distinct characteristics that allow them to better adapt to their differing environment pressures. 3. Convergent evolution l- leads to similar characteristics in distinctly related species that are exposed to similar pressures

Answer 97

P+q=1 P^2+2pq +q^2=1

Answer 98

Refers to the tendency of alleles in close proximity to remain on the same chromosome and be inherited together by offspring. This tendency occurs because of fewer crossover events between these loci during meiosis, resulting in a greater number of haploid gametes with nonrecombinant genotypes

Answer 99

Nonsense mutation is a mutation in which nucleotide change creates a premature stop codon, causing early translation termination and production of a truncated (shortened) protein.

Answer 100

The adult kidney produce it. It is a hormone that signals bone marrow to increase red blood cell production

Answer 101

Can remain in the gene pool if the organism’s fitness remains unaffected, even when the deleterious alleles reduce survival after the reproductive years. In addition, deleterious recessive alleles evade elimination by natural selection through phenotypic masking in heterozygotes.

Answer 102

Random X chromosome inactivation leads to mosaic phenotypes

Answer 103

Incomplete dominance is when there is a blending of the two alleles that result in a third phenotype that doesn’t look like either of the parents. Classic example is when white flower and red flower are crossed and all their offspring is solid pink. Two common example as height and hair color. Codominance - both alleles are expressed together in the offspring. If we cross red flower and white flower, the offspring would be flowers with red and white patches on them. Most common examples is AB blood type. Person with A type has baby with B blood, child could have type AB where both phenotypes are fully expressed

Answer 104

2 electrons in form of a hydride H+ion. It reduce ubiquinone UQ to Ubiquinol UQH2. Turning O2 into water requires 2 NADH. Likewise four copies of one electron carrier such as reduced cytochrome c, are required

Answer 105

Short at most 5C Medium 6-12C Long more than 12C

Answer 106

In matrix of mitochondria. FA oxidation happens in mitochondria. Before this can occurX the hydrocarbon chains of cytosolic FA must enter mitochondrial matrix. For short and medium FA this is accomplished via simple diffusion but hydrocarbon chain of Long FA must be transiently linked to a molecule called carnitine to across.

Answer 107

1. Hexokinase (or glucokinese) - glucose 6 phosphatase 2. Phosphofructokinase- fructose 1,6 biphosphatase 3. Pyruvate kinase- pyruvate carboxylase and phosphoenolpyruvatecarboxykinase

Answer 108

Liver. Liver initially synthesizes glucose from degrading glycogen. After glycogen stores depleted in prolonged fasting, gluconeogenesis is up regulated, increasing the synthesis of glucose from precursors such as pyruvate.

Answer 109

Investment: Glucose - glucose 6phosphate, fructose 6 phosphate to fructose 1,6 biphosphate 2 ATP consumed per glucose Payoff- 1,3 biphosphoglycerate to 3 phosphoglycerate 2ATP 2 phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate 2aATP Total 4ATP produced per glucose

Answer 110

Is a type of ether bond that joins a carbohydrate molecule to another group which may or may not be another carbohydrate it is a condensation reaction.

Answer 111

It is broken down by liver into glycerol and free fatty acids. Glycerol is rapidly converted to glyceraldehyde 3phosphate for glucose synthesis (gluconeogenesis) while free fatty acids enter the mitochondria where they are oxidized to generate acetyl CoA for the CAC to produce energy. Excess acetyl CoA that accumulate beyond what is needed for the liver can be converted to ketone bodies such as acetoacetate and 3 hydroxybutyrate which are then exported into circulation. Brain can use ketone bodies as energy source when needed

Answer 112

Each phospholipid has a unique mass, charge and solubility due to distinct features in the backbone, polar head groups, and fatty acid chains. They can be separated by their mass charge and solubility

Answer 113

Membrane fluidity is determined partially by the concentration of cholesterol and the tail length of fatty acid. Cholesterol is a steroid alcohol. At high temp, it provides rigidly and stabilized the membrane, at low temp, it increases fluidity and prevents the membrane from solidifying. Short unsaturated FA tails increase membrane fluidity by preventing phospholipids from cluster together, but longer saturated tails such as those typically found in sphingolipids induce lipid clustering and decrease fluidity

Answer 114

Increases the surface area of lipids by breaking down large globules into spherical structures called micelles. Micelles have a hydrophobic core which contains the non polar hydrocarbon tails of lipids, and an other shell of polar head groups, which make contact with water. Lipases can cleave the ester bonds in hydrolyzable lipids such as triglycerides, phospholipids and waxes by adding water. Nonhydrolyzable lipids don’t contain the ester linkages necessary for lipase digestion. Most common are cholesterol (steriods) and fat soluble vitamins (KADE)

Answer 115

Synthesis of steroid hormone, bile salts and vitamin D. Common steroid hormones are: Cortisol Aldosterone Testosterone Progesterone Estrogen (CAT PE)

Answer 116

B series and C B1 - thiamine - required as a cofactor for decarboxylation B2 - riboflavin- precursor of flavonoid cofactors such as FAD B3 - niacin - precursor of the cofactor NADH NADPH B5- pantothenate- precursor for coenzyme A B6- pyridoxine- cofactor in transamination of amino acids B7 - biotin - required as cofactor in carboxylation reactions. B9 - folic acid -precursor of THF necessary for methylation reaction in nucleotide synthesis B12 - cobalamin - cofactor in metabolism of odd fatty acids, required for brain function and red blood cell formation C -ascorbic acid- acts as an antioxidant, required for collagen synthesis

Answer 117

A- cell membrane and repair, immune system maintenance, eyesight D- calcium absorption and utilization in the development and growth of bones and teeth E- antioxidant, protects cell membranes from oxidative damage, particularly red blood cells K- required for blood clot formation

Answer 118

Have multiple stereocenters but differ only at one of them. Eg D mannose is C2 epimer of glucose

Answer 119

Sucrose is disaccharide in which the reducing end of D glucose is linked to the reducing end of D fructose. Because both reducing ends are already involved in a glycosidic bond, sucrose is not a reducing sugar

Answer 120

DNA polymerase catalyze the accurate addition of nucleotide to growing stands of DNA 5’-3’ direction. 3’ is the new added nucleotides located. To accomplish this, DNA polymerase possesses both polymerase and exonuclease activities. When incorrect nucleotide is added, it is removed by exonuclease region and it removes it from 3’ to 5’

Answer 121

Storing large amounts of glucose as monomers results in high osmotic pressure which can cause the cell to rupture as too much water flows in. This problem can be avoided by linking multiple glucose particles into one large particle. Osmotic pressure п=iMRT Ps: glucose is highly soluble in water whereas glycogen has low solubility

Answer 122

1. Energy storage- triacylglycerols, free FA 2. Structural- cholesterol, waxes, sphingolipids, glycerophosholipids 3. Signaling - steroids, fat soluble vitamins, eicosandoids, prostaglandins, diacylglycerol

Answer 123

It changes a single functional group of nitrogenous base from an amine to a carbonyl, causing mutations that alter hydrogen bonding patterns. The deamination of cytosine results in its conversion to uracil

Answer 124

Most polar to less polar Carboxylic acid, amide, alcohols, amine, /(aldehydes ketones), ester, alkyl halide, ether, alkane

Answer 125

It removes the hydrophilic hydroxyl group and replaces it with a hydrophobic acyl tail. This modification changes the molecule from an amphipathic cholesterol to a hydrophobic cholesteryl ester; resulting in the movement of the ester from the membrane to surface to the hydrophobic core of lipoprotein

Answer 126

Denoting the liquid above the solid after crystallization, precipitation, centrifugation or other process

Answer 127

Are nonhydrolyzable, 20 carbon (eicosanoid) lipids involved in autocrine and paracrine signaling. They are derived from arachidonic acid and often help mediate localized inflammatory responses

Answer 128

Base substitution codes for different amino acid with similar chemical structure

Answer 129

Serine, threonine, cysteine, tyrosine, lysine. These amino acids become nucleophiles when they are deprotonated

Answer 130

7 of them ionizable- meaning their charges can be altered as protons are added or removed with varying pH. DYCE- aspartate, tyrosine, cysteine, glutamate. Can carry a negative charge RKH- arginine, lysine, histidine, can carry positive charge

Answer 131

Cation exchange- (catch cations) beads are negatively charged and bind cations. Positively charged residues stick and negative charge will be repelled and sped on. Anion exchange does the opposite.

Answer 132

pHpKa deprotonaed pH=pKa buffer zone pKa is higher than the surrounding pH - the group is protonated and therefore more positive (or less negative) The net charge is the peptide at given pH is the sum of the charges of all the ionizable groups.

Answer 133

Leucine, isoleucine, valine. Has the branched alkyl side group. (Only CH-alkyl)

Answer 134

HPLC is a technique in which a mixture of molecules enters a column packed with beads. The beads maybe hydrophilic (normal phase) or hydrophobic (reverse phase). As the mixture moves through the column, different compounds in the mixture experience different strengths of attraction of beads. Molecules with stronger attraction to the beads stay in the column longer and are separated from molecules with a weaker attraction to the beads. It is best to used for separating small organic molecules such as individual amino acids and dipeptides.

Answer 135

The protein ubiquitin can be attached to other proteins as a molecular signal, usually through linkage to a lysine residue. Polyubiquitination is a signal for protein degradation by the proteasome.

Answer 136

A measurement is said to be precise or reliable, if similar or very close results are obtained on repeated trials. Accuracy can be assessed using a “gold standard” test; which is used to calibrate instruments. A result is said to be valid if it is both precise and accurate as it reliably produces real world values

Answer 137

They are only two amino acids that have amide group in the end

Answer 138

They are both has carboxylic acid in their side chains.

Answer 139

Met- thioether Phe- phenyl Tyr- phenol Trp- indole His- imidazole Lys- amine Cys- thiol Ser. Thr- alcohols Arg- guanidinium Gly- hydride

Answer 140

Stacking interaction can stabilize secondary structures. This happens between aromatic side chains like phe, Tyr, trp. Glycine has the flexibility favorable for beta turns Proline - rigidity induces right turns

Answer 141

Protein folding is primarily driven by the hydrophobic effect. Proteins that adapt non native conformations are generally forced to expose more hydrophobic residues to the aqueous environment. These residues cannot interact with water, and therefore tend to aggregate to minimize exposure due to hydrophobic effect. The inability to interact with water results in precipitation out of solution.

Answer 142

Parallel and antiparallel beta sheets differ in the alignment of their strands, with parallel strands having aligned N termini. Antiparallel strands can be linked by 180° beta turns whereas parallel strands require longer connecting regions. All data sheets participate in backbone hydrogen bonds

Answer 143

Molecular shape pronouns are defined as proteins that facilitate the proper folding of other proteins. They usually accomplish this by binding hydrophobic regions of nascent, misfolded, aggregated proteins, preventing exposure of those regions to aqueous solvent. This arrangement prevents incorrect interactions between hydrophobic residues and can prevent or reverse aggregation by blocking interactions between hydrophobic regions of separate polypeptides.

Answer 144

PAGE is used to separate proteins by charge and molecular weight without affecting their 3D structure. Electric field is applied to a gel and proteins migrate toward one of the electrodes based on their mass and charge. Under these conditions, proteins maintain their biological function because they retain their tertiary and quaternary structure during native PAGE purification. SDS PAGE separates proteins only on the basis of mass. SDS is a detergent that coats proteins with negative charge and denatures proteins by disrupting non-covalent interactions. Proteins separated by SDSPAGE are unfolded into their primary structure and are unable to perform their biological functions

Answer 145

Acidic and basic side chains of amino acids form ionic bonds referred as salt bridges, which contribute to tertiary and quaternary structure. High salt concentration (NaCl by forming ionic bonds with amino acids) can disrupt salt bridges and cause proteins to become denatured (unfold). The loss of three dimensional structure in denature proteins result in loss or reduction of function

Answer 146

Anabolic- build up Required: NADH, NADPH,FADH2, ATP Produced: NAD+, NADP+, FAD, ADP Pi Catabolic: break down Required: NAD+, NADP+, FAD, ADP Pi Produced: NADH, NADPH,FADH2, ATP

Answer 147

It requires energy, reducing power, and sufficient precursor molecules. ATP, NADPH, and acetyl CoA

Answer 148

Produces NADH, FADH2. RL step: conversion of fatty acid acyl CoA molecules to fatty acylcarnitine by carnitine palmitotransferase I

Answer 149

E1- pyruvate dehydrogenase E2- dihydrolipoyl transacetylase E3- dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase This reaction requires CoA, thiamine pyrophosphate, lipoic acid and NAD+

Answer 150

Insulin stimulates lipid synthesis by activating major enzyme involved in fatty acid synthesis. In the mitochondria, insulin activates pyruvate dehydrogenase which provides acetyl CoA which then transported to the cytoplasm through citrate shuttle. Citrate shuttle is acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate which can exit mitochondria. In the cytoplasm, citrate is converted back to acetyl CoA and oxaloacetate.

Answer 151

Refers to breakdown of polypeptide chains and proteins into individual amino acids to produce ATP, glucose, or new proteins. Transamination reactions generate alpha keto acids from amino acids by transferring NH3 group to alpha ketoglutarate which is co vetted to glutamate

Answer 152

1. Hexokinase 2. Phosphoglucose isomerase 3. Phosphofructokinase 4. Aldolase *triose phosphate dehydrogenase 5. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase 6. Phosphoglycerate kinase 7. Phosphoglycerate mutase 8. Enolase 10. Pyruvate kinase

Answer 153

Glycogen phosphorylase break the bond between two adjacent glucose molecules in a glycogen chain by phosphorolysos or addition of a phosphate molecule across a bond to produce glucose 1 phosthate. G1P is then transformed into glucose 6 phosphate for use in glycolysis or the pentose phosphate pathway

Answer 154

It is the rate limiting enzyme for the oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway which is the primary cytosolic source of NADPH in eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cells use NADPH as a reducing agent in lipid synthesis.

Answer 155

It occurs in the liver of animals and spans both the cytosol and mitochondria. Each molecule of urea produced contains two nitrogen atoms. The first nitrogen atom comes from a free ammonium which may be produced through deamination of glutamine or asparagine side chains or by deamination of any other amine including the Alpha amine of the alpha amino acids. The second nitrogen atom in urea comes from the amino acid aspartate, although any amino acid can become aspartate by donating its alpha amino acid group to oxaloacetate through transamination.

Answer 156

Activates the B-adrenergic receptor, a G protein coupled receptor on skeletal muscle cells. Stimulation of this pathway leads to an increase in glycogenolysis and in skeletal muscle, an increase in glycolysis, which supports the sympathetic fight or flight response.

Answer 157

In the cytosol. Under anaerobic conditions, there is no oxygen to receive the high energy electrons and therefore NAD+ cannot be regenerated through respiration. Instead NAD+ is anaerobically regenerated through fermentation. Animal cells for perform lactic acid fermentation in which NADH and pyruvate produced during glycolysis react together to regenerate NAD+ and produce lactate.

Answer 158

Either malate aspartate shuttle or glycerol-3-phosphate shutttle are used to oxidize NADH back to NAD+ in cytosol

Answer 159

One of two ways: 1. Substrate level phosphorylation - the direct coupling of ADP phosphorylation to the hydrolysis of a high energy molecule (eg creatine phosphate) is an example of substrate level phosphorylation 2. Oxidative phosphorylation - the ADP phosphorylation is indirectly coupled to the oxidation or reduced molecules ( NADH, FADH2). This molecules pass high energy electrons into an electron transport chain, where the electrons participate in a series of oxidation reduction reactions that pump proteins against their electrochemical gradient before ultimately reducing oxygen to water. The proton gradient forms a protein motive force that powers the phosphorylation of ADP

Answer 160

Reversible biochemical reactions have a small delta G near 0 and can proceed in both the forward and reverse direction under physiological conditions. Biochemical reactions with a large negative delta G are spontaneous but irreversible

Answer 161

Same ATP produced Different ATP consumed. Glycolysis 2 ATP used. Glucose 6 phosphate from glyconolysis enters glycolysis, less ATP is invested because the initial Hexokinase reaction is bypassed

Answer 162

Skeletal muscle and liver are the major sites of glycogen storage in the body. The activity of glucose 6 phosphatase allows the liver to release glucose derived from glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis into the blood where as muscle lacks significant levels of glucose 6 phosphatase

Answer 163

Is a four step (oxidation, hydration, oxidation, cleavage) repetitive pathway that breaks down acyl CoA into acetyl CoA and an acyl CoA chain shortened by two carbons. It produces both NADH and FADH2. In fatty acid synthesis NADPH is used.

Answer 164

Produced in the citric acid cycle, glycolysis and B oxidation

Answer 165

Glycogen phosphorylase catalyzes the release of glucose residues from linear glycogen segments, and debranching enzyme linearizes branched segments of glycogen for subsequent degradation by phosphorylase

Answer 166

Apoptosis can be caused by certain developmental events, DNA damage, or reactive oxygen species. It is induced when cytochrome C is allowed to leave the mitochondria and enter the cytosol where it activates caspase which in turn activate several degradative pathways such as proteolysis.

Answer 167

Pyruvate to acetyl CoA - 1NADH Acetyl CoA in CAC- 3NADH, 1FADH2 Each NADH=10 FADH3=6 H+ proton pumped into the intermembrane space. 1ATP is produced every 4H+

Answer 168

PI is calculated based on pKa values of ionizable functional groups on a protein and can therefore be affected by posttranslational modifications (which can add or remove functional groups) or by protein structures (which alters the pKa values).

Answer 169

High in pH, basic. Has proteins with high pI values.

Answer 170

n<1 Sharp beginning and almost straight line continues. n=1 hyperbolic shape (like the normal michalis Menten curve) n>1 sigmoidal shape (s)

Answer 171

Is a misfolded protein that acts as an infectious agent by inducing changes in the secondary structure of other normal proteins, causing these normal proteins to also become misfolded.

Answer 172

Are subviral infectious particles consisting of short circular single strand of DNA. Unlike viruses, viroids are not surrounded by a protein coat. When infecting cells, viroids can bind host cellular RNA sequences, resulting in gene silencing that prevents synthesis of necessary proteins

Answer 173

The microtubules are involved in intracellular transport. They are involved in this process originate near the nucleus on organelles called centrioles and radiate out toward the plasma membrane

Answer 174

Is a protein DNA complex to which spindle fibers, made of microtubules, attach during metaphase of mitosis.

Answer 175

Nondividing cells. They are in the G0 phase of the cell cycle/

Answer 176

In the nucleoid region of bacterial prokaryotic cells, double stranded DNA is condensed into a circular chromosome that has no telomeres or associated histones. In contrast, eukaryotic cells package their histone wrapped, double stranded DNA into their chromosome with ends capped by telomeres to prevent DNA from unraveling.

Answer 177

Generic material can be RNA or DNA Can be double or single stranded Either enveloped or non enveloped, enveloped viruses have a membrane or phospholipid bilayer, generally derived from the cell membrane of the host. Nonenveloped has no phospholipid bilayer. In contrast, all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are enclosed by a phospholipid bilayer

Answer 178

Are class of envelope viruses that have RNA genomes. Upon entering a host cell, the envelope and capsid disassemble, releasing viral RNA and proteins into the cytoplasm of the host cell. Viral reverse transcriptase converts a viral RNA into double stranded DNA that is then transported into a nucleus.

Answer 179

Fragments of DNA that can move between different areas of the genome are called transposons. Retro transposon move via an RNA intermediate that is transcribed from DNA, translated into a specialized enzyme, converted back to DNA and re-insert it into new genomic location.

Answer 180

Alterations to chromosome structure (eg fusion or breakage) can occur due to their DNA mutations and chromosomal alterations may cause changes in chromosome number with that particular species. Reduction can happen via: 1. End to end (telomeres to telomere) fusion of two chromosomes and inactivation of one of the centromeres would initially generate a larger chromosome with 2 centromeres, reducing the chromosome number by one. 2. Breakage of a chromosome at centromere and fusion of each chromosome portion to the ends of other chromosomes. This initial leakage would result into individual chromosome portions. Fusion of those portions to other chromosome would cause the original chromosome to be lost, also reducing the overall chromosome number in the cell by one.

Answer 181

It is a transfer of DNA between bacteria through a tube formed by the pilus. During conjugation, transfer occurs unidirectionally from cells with the F factor to the cells lacking the F factor.

Answer 182

Composed of three elements: 1. A promoter or the upstream region of DNA to which RNA polymerase and other transcriptional modulators binds 2. An operator which is a nucleotide sequence either within the promoter or between the promoter and the downstream genes regulated by the promoter to which a repressor binds 3. Gene controlled by the operan

Answer 183

Occurs when a person’s recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate because of post event information. It is an example of retroactive interference which occurs when information presented later interferes with the ability to retain previously encoded information. Eg when asked the question “how fast were cars going when they smashed into each other? The answer typically involves a higher rate of speed than when the question was phrased, how fast were the cars going when they bumped into each other

Answer 184

Refers to the retrieval advantage of verbal items that are imageable. These items are encoded with both a verbal code and a visual code which benefits their retrievablity

Answer 185

Deep in the brain stem, is concerned with functions involving arousal, particularly the sleep awake cycle and attention

Answer 186

The cornea forms the outermost layer of the front of the eye, in which it directly contacts the back of the eyelids.

Answer 187

Occurs when a response that has been associated with one stimulus occurs for another stimulus that is similar in some way.

Answer 188

Posits that there is an ideal level of anxiety or stress that leads to peak performance. This level is different for every individual and can change depending on the task at hand. Too much or too little arousal will lead to suboptimal performance. (Yerkes and dorson)

Answer 189

Universal physiological changes in response to any kind of stressor (human stress response is not specific to the type of stresses). It has three stages: 1. Alarm - similar to the fight or flight response 2. Resistance - forces will be build up, cope with stressor 3. Exhaustion- will cause death if the body is unable to overcome the threat. Reserves depleted

Answer 190

Is located underneath the cerebrum, and governs balance and fine motor movements. It’s main function is maintaining coordination throughout the body

Answer 191

Middle of distribution, splitting the sample distribution of values in half.

Answer 192

The tendency to avoid risk and have low risk tolerance.

Answer 193

Voluntarily cease to keep or claim, give up (adandon, hand over)

Answer 194

Subjectivity is based on feelings, emotions and opinions. Objectivity is truth that is independent of subjectivity meaning no bias, prejudice, or partiality.

Answer 195

Involves processes that are quick and initiated involuntarily and automatically without active control.

Answer 196

Is the process of organizing parts of objects into meaningful whole. The whole is then remembered as a unit instead of individual parts.

Answer 197

There are three unitary (separate) memory stores and that information is transferred between these stores in a linear sequence. Sensory memory, short term memory (aka working memory), long term memory

Answer 198

Involves samples being vaporized and passed through a liquid or solid stationary phase using a gaseous mobile phase. The stationary phase let’s polar molecules elite more slowly. The molecules with the lowest BP come out of the column first.

Answer 199

1/o+1/I=S O- object distance I- lens to retina distance

Answer 200

HCl HBr HI HNO3 HClO3 chloric acid HClO4 perchloric acid H2SO4 - sulfuric acid

Answer 201

n=c/v c- speed of light in vacuum v- speed of light in a medium

Answer 202

Number of photons emitted. The of electromagnetic radiation is directly proportional to the number of photons and intensity of electromagnetic radiation is defined as energy emitted per unit time. Intensity=Power/area

Answer 203

Is defined as the difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure.

Answer 204

Work=P*t (W*s)

Answer 205

Intermolecular covalent bond

Answer 206

Rods and Cones. They contain different opsins. Rods - rhodopsin, which underlies twilight vision Cones- cone opsin, which underlie daylight (color) vision

Answer 207

B- decay- adds the atomic number The rest decreases the atomic number. Alpha, B+, electron capture

Answer 208

1/f=1/o+1/i M=ratio of the height of the image to the height of object m=hi/ho=-di/do

Answer 209

Are glycoproteins that mediate cell-cell connections. They are found on the membrane of cells and interact in the space between the cells, holding the membrane together

Answer 210

Functions in formation of vesicles for intracellular trafficking

Answer 211

Is a sequence that tags the protein for it to be transported into the nucleus.

Answer 212

Involves the pumping of protons through special channels in the membrane of mitochondria from the inter to the outer compartment.

Answer 213

Restoration and maintenance of the resting potentials. This is achieved by moving three Na+ out of the cell for every two K+ ions that are brought into the cell

Answer 214

Binding to the promoter or the enhancer of the gene located on the DNA, along with RNA polymerase

Answer 215

ATP- binding cassette, They use ATP to transport a variety of different substrates across cell membranes, most common out of cell.

Answer 216

Are cholesterol rich domain with composition of carbohydrates, proteins and other lipids found on the cell surface. It is important for signaling receptors. There are three categories for them. 1. True resident proteins - gpi anchored proteins 2. Signaling proteins GPCR RTK 3. Cytoskeleton proteins/adhesion molecules Also play important role in the events involved in B cell activation

Answer 217

Glomerular capillary pressure - force filtrate from capillary into bowman’s capsule. Other two for new promote movement of the filtrate in the opposite direction Capsular hydrostatic pressure Blood colloid osmotic pressure

Answer 218

NADH- 10 protons to be pumped, yielding 2.5ATP. FADH2-6 protons to be pumped, yielding 1.5ATP 4protons pumped per 1 ATP produced

Answer 219

Is generally single stranded but folds into a t shape. It brings the amino acid to growing polypeptide chain by recognizing the codons in an mRNA sequence

Answer 220

Main component of ribosomes It combines with special proteins to form ribosomes which then read mRNA to form proteins. Essentially ribosomes contain rRNA and help build proteins

Answer 221

Is a type of cell that contribute to the formation of connective tissue, fibrous cellular material that supports and connects other tissues or organs in the body. They secrete collagen proteins that help maintain the structural framework of tissues.

Answer 222

Endothelial cells are the cells that are in direct contact with blood and the surrounding matrix so these are the cells that play the most important role in gas exchange

Answer 223

It maintains ionic balance by causing conservation of Na+ and excretion of K+. Cl- follows Na+movement

Answer 224

Is the set of membrane bound organelles that are involved mainly in the modification and transportation of proteins. This include the nuclear envelope, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, vesicles and lysosomes.

Answer 225

Metabolizing fatty acids or protein degradation which can lead to unexplained weight loss and feeling of fatigue. Those alternatives energy sources can cause increase in appetite

Answer 226

A specific pH range. The range at which the color change takes place depends on the point at which HIn is converted to ln-, and this depends on the pKa of the indicator.

Answer 227

It allows one to test for selective attention. Subjects are presented with two different messages, one on their right ear and one in left ear, then they are told to shadow the attended message by repeating it out loud with a delay of a few seconds between hearing a word and repeating the word.

Answer 228

Left hemisphere

Answer 229

Selective attention - is demonstrated when many stimuli are present, and a person ignores the non task related stimuli. Divided attention- is the ability of the brain to attend two different stimuli at the same time.

Answer 230

IQ is used to quantitatively measure intelligence. Average IQ is 100 and standard deviation is 15 points. Majority of the population falls within one standard deviation of the mean, meaning 68% of the population falls within that 85 and 115 range.

Answer 231

Serves as a relay station for information that comes and goes to the cortex. It plays a role in memory.

Answer 232

It is a stimulant that rapidly enters the bloodstream and penetrates the brain. It ultimately causes a buildup of dopamine. That’s why people experience increased pleasure and motivation. Increased activity in the brain would cause increased glucose consumption.

Answer 233

They are different chemical messengers. Hormone is secrete by endocrine system and act on distant target cells. Neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic nerve terminal in the brain. They move across the synaptic cleft and move to next neuron (aka postsynaptic neuron). (Released by nerve cells) Hormones effect can be slower to build up but longer lasting. Neurotransmitters can be fast to act but shorter lasting. It is part of nervous system. Common neurotransmitters are dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine

Answer 234

Shaping uses operant conditioning principles to train a subject by rewarding proper behavior and discouraging improper behavior. It is important to do that early to establish proper behavior. Eg when the person or animal exhibits a behavior that is similar to the target behavior, it is rewarded. This process is repeated as the behavior exhibited closer and closer to the target.

Answer 235

Is a group whose members adopt cultural patterns in opposition to the larger culture

Answer 236

Distal stimulus is the actual physical stimulus, the physically objective dimensions of the viewed object. The proximal stimulus is the very image that falls on the retina. It is registered nu the sensory receptors

Answer 237

Partial: A method of testing memory in which only some of the total information presented is to be recalled. It is used to minimize output interference in studies of iconic memory. Whole report- used in iconic memory in which the participants attempts to recall all the presented information

Answer 238

This requires the subject to respond to a series of words with the first word that comes to mind. This can be used to explore individual differences like thoughts and traits

Answer 239

Pre-conventional - stage 1- obedience and punishment: behavior driven by avoiding punishment Stage2- individual interest; behavior driven by self interest and rewards Conventional - stage 3- interpersonal behavior driven by social approval. Stage 4- authority -behavior driven by obeying authority and conforming to social order Post-conventional- stage 5- social contract: behavior driven by balance of social order and individual rights Stage 6: behavior driven by internal moral principles

Answer 240

Also referred as critical period, which identifies a point in early development that can have a significant influence on physiological or behavioral functioning in later life.

Answer 241

This theory is based on the principe that organisms are born with certain psychological needs and that is a negative state of tension is created when these needs are not satisfied. When a need is satisfied, drive is reduced and the organisms return to a state of homostasis and relaxation.

Answer 242

States external rewards and punishment are primary cause of an individual’s behavior as opposed to internal factors. The most common types of incentives 1. Compensation, 2. Recognition 3. Security. It could be also following norms of colors and fit in and be accepted

Answer 243

It focuses on the contribution of social and cultural factors to disease patterns in population

Answer 244

Cultural capital refers to knowledge, skill, education and similar characteristics that are used to make social distinctions and that are associated with differences in social status. The social capital is the relationship of people which live and work in a particular society.

Answer 245

Is the status you receive when you are born, it’s given at birth. Eg Royal family

Answer 246

Suggest that behaviors are learned through observing others and modeling their actions.

Answer 247

Is a framework that describes how our overlapping social identities relate to social structures of racism and oppression. Intersectionality merges many identity markets including race, class, gender, sexual orientation, age, ethnicity, religion, disability etc to create more truthful and complex identity

Answer 248

Examines small scales (micro level) social interactions, focusing attention on how shared meaning is established among individuals or small group

Answer 249

Either of them can cause each other. Eg positive correlation between hunger and inadequate sleep. This implies either sleep deprivation causes hunger or hunger causes sleep deprivation

Answer 250

Sensorimotor 0-2 Preoperational 2-7 Concrete operational 7-11 Formal operational 11 and older She probably can fuck

Answer 251

E*d E- electric field d- distance between plates

Answer 252

1. Energy can’t be created or destroyed 2. For a spontaneous process, the entropy of the universe increases 3. A perfect crystal at zero kelvin has zero entropy

Answer 253

The image forms where light ends up and the object is where light is coming from.

Answer 254

Convex lens- converging +f, inverted, real, If Object placed on; the image will be: At f - infinity At 2f - same size as the object At between 2f and f, larger than object If object placed at same side as lens, image is upright, virtual and larger than the object Concave lens- diverging -f, upright, virtual, smaller than object, image formed between the lens and the object,

Answer 255

Short reaction times favor kinetic control whereas longer reaction times favor thermodynamic reaction control. Kinetic control is fast because activation energy is low. It usually associated with irreversible reactions. Thermodynamics control is preferred for more stable product (lower free energy). If there is lower energy state product can be formed, then it will be formed. This is associated with reversibility.

Answer 256

The addition of a phosphate to a molecule or protein. Enzymes that phosphorylate molecules are called kinases. Typically kinases use phosphate from ATP to add to a molecule. So it is transferase enzyme. OH is phosphorylated. Two kinds of phosphorylation: 1. Substrate level phosphorylation- synthesis of ATP by the direct transfer of phosphate gourd from bight energy intermediate to a molecule of ADP. 2. Oxidative phosphorylation- use of O2 to oxidize electrons carriers NADH/FADH2 in order to generate ATP.

Answer 257

Are group of structures that are activated whenever we experience something rewarding, such as eating good food, having sex or using addictive drug. Structures that are considered to be a part of the system are found along the primary dopamine pathways of the brain. Main neurotransmitters of reward and pleasure is dopamine. It is produced in ventral tegmental area, located in midbrain. Once dopamine is produced in the VTA, the dopamine is transported to other areas of the brain, through different pathways. Two mains are mesolimbic, and mesocorticol dopamine pathways. Mesolimbic pathways: dopamine projected on the nucleus accumbens (which is part of complex circuits involving amygdala, hippocampus)

Answer 258

It is a fear of strangers and infants start expressing it around 8 months old. Newborn to 6 weeks- will only form the beginning of attachment. The babies are ok with being left with unfamiliar people. Around 6weeks -8 months go through attachment in makings. No separation anxiety yet. 8-18 months - clear cut attachment

Answer 259

Piaget believed that there 2 basic ways that we can adapt to new experiences and information: 1. Assimilation - new information is added to existing knowledge. Schemas remain the same. Fits into current interpretation of reality. Eg chef learns new cooking technique. Child sees new type of dog that they never seen before and immediately points to the animal and says dog 2. Accommodation- new information changes or replaces existing knowledge. New schemas may develop, transforms current interpretation of reality.

Answer 260

Used to measure oxygen levels in specific areas of the brain as a measurement of brain activity. It can be used to defects changes associated with blood flow.

Answer 261

The object is can be better viewed by the peripheral vision because it is the rods at the edges of the retina, rather than the cones at the center. Fovea is the region in the center of the eye that is responsible for acute vision. It has high density of cones, works well in bright light.

Answer 262

It involves the ability to adapt to one’s environment and the capacity to learn from experience. G factor is the measure of general intelligence.

Answer 263

R=0 no correlation R=1 strong correlation R=0.38 - partially correlated, potential common factor but with a significant degree of common error factor

Answer 264

Is a technique used to deal with order effects when using a repeated measures design. With counterbalancing, the participant sample is divided in half, with one half completing the two conditions in one order and the other half completing the conditions in the reverse order.

Answer 265

It is a change in response to a stimulus because of a subconscious memory effect. Implicit memory refers to the ability to subconsciously use previous experiences to aid in future tasks. Priming is a key player in implicit memory. Positive priming speeds up the reaction to the stimulus while negative priming slows down the reaction to stimulus. So priming requires implicit memory

Answer 266

Also known as antipsychotics (typical one)

Answer 267

Is the ability to think on one’s feet, be adaptable, and solve problems using deductive and inductive reasoning. It involves thinking, reasoning, and solving problems in novel situations.

Answer 268

Most common type of dementia. It is a progressive disease beginning with mild memory loss and possibly leading to loss of the ability to carry on a conversation and respond to the environment. It involves parts of brain that control thought, memory, and language. Brain cell connections and the cells themselves degenerate and die.

Answer 269

Are both neurological conditions caused by neurodegeneration. They are associated with buildup of certain proteins in the brain. Alzheimer’s always cause demantia but Parkinson’s - movement disorder can sometimes cause dementia.

Answer 270

Three stage process that describes the physiological changes the body goes through when under stress. Hans selye. Alarm reaction stage Resistance stage Exhaustion stage

Answer 271

Relating to the sequence of time or to a particular time.

Answer 272

In parallel processing, we take in multiple different forms of information at the same time. Like information about space, time, and frequency of events is automatically processed. This is especially important in vision. Eg when you see bus coming toward you, you see it’s color, shape, depth, and motion all at once.

Answer 273

Detection of a stimulus depends on both the intensity of the stimulus and the physical/physiological state of individual.

Answer 274

Social sanctions are attempts to control behavior. Formal sanctions are written and have official consequences of obeying or disobeying the law. Informal sanctions are actions taken by peers, family members, coworkers, religious leaders or anytime else. Such sanctions are applicable as consequences of obeying or disobeying cultural norms. Examples: paying fine for littering is a formal negative social sanction. Someone glassing at a person when they litter, which makes them feel guiltily and ashamed is negative, informal social sanctions. Both are meant to be punishment for discouraging behavior which is negative sanction. Getting a tax credit for being married is a positive formal sanctions and being congratulated and receiving gifts for the same are positive informal sanctions. Both meant to reinforce the socially desirable behavior of getting married.

Answer 275

States: if men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences. It helps us understand how everyday aspects of our society are socially constructed. For example the country you live in doesn’t actually exist (in the sense that there aren’t lines constructed). Only exists in our minds.

Answer 276

Gender is defined as social construct. Gender is the division of groups of people by associate roles, expectations and stereotypes in a culture that is shaped by many things. Male and female are considered sex assignments while man and woman are considered genders and gender is spectrum. Social constructionism view of gender looks beyond categories and examines the intersections of multiple identities and the blurring of the boundaries between essentialist categories.

Answer 277

He studied self, person’s distinct identity tied is developed through social interaction. Me component - socialized and conforming aspect of self. Eg studying for exam instead of going to party. I- spontaneous and less socialized component of self. Eg going party by skipping work.

Answer 278

Kcat/km Measure how well an enzyme is able to grab its substrate and turn it into product. Kcat - turnover number (catalytic constant) measures number of molecules of substrate turned over into product per unit time. Vmax/[E] total

Answer 279

Hydrolyzing peptide bond changes it from: Sp2-sp3-sp2 Substitution reaction is happening. Water is deprotonated becomes OH, which attacks sp2 carbonyl carbon of peptide bond. Which results in sp3 intermediate, unstable and the double bond reforms shortly after. Back to sp2

Answer 280

Delta G=Delta H -TdeltaS Temperature is in Kevin

Answer 281

Best electron acceptors are those with highest electron affinity. Electron affinity increases to the right and up the periodic table.

Answer 282

Red blood cells ruptured or were damaged.

Answer 283

This occurs during interphase, before mitosis or meiosis and is responsible for the synthesis or replication of DNA. In this way, the genetic material of cell is doubled before it enters mitosis or meiosis, allowing there to be enough DNA to be split into daughter cells

Answer 284

It is first addresses maladaptive behaviors through behavior therapy to systematically modify a person’s behavior. This is followed by sessions designed to foster cognitive change through self-assessments. CBT therapy usually involves efforts to change thinking patterns. These strategies might include: learning to recognize one’s distortions in thinking that are creating problems and then evaluate them in light of reality.

Answer 285

Is the amount of air that moves into the lungs during each inspiration. Some of this air doesn’t reach alveoli, the volume of such has in the air passageways (trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles) is called the respiratory dead space.

Answer 286

A female baby is born with all the eggs (oocytes) she will need in her lifetime. These oocytes are arrested in prophase I at the time of birth. So they have already gone though mitosis (fertilization and till birth) and have started meiosis I. At puberty, each month, some of these oocytes complete meiosis I and start meiosis II. When they are ovulated, they are arrested in metaphase II. Meiosis II completes only when fertilization takes place but the fusion of nuclei of the egg and sperm takes place once meiosis II completes.

Answer 287

They all have contact with external environment or elements of the external environment. Nostrils, mouth, genital areas, anus. The tissues that exposed to the external environment have mucous membranes which acts as a barrier and stops pathogens from entering the body.

Answer 288

Vmax measure max speed at which a concentration of enzymes can work. Vmax=kcat*[E] Kcat- speed at single enzyme can work [E]- concentration of enzyme