Mcat Aamc Flashcards
What are the ribosomes numbers for eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells?
Eukaryotes have 60S 40S =80S
Prokaryotes have 50S 30S =70S
40-60-80
30-50-70
what is myoglobin
It is the oxygen binding molecules in muscles and organs. Myoglobin binds to oxygen tighter than hemoglobin which is the oxygen binding molecule in blood.
Which parts of the brain controls involuntary respiration, muscle coordination and hunger?
Respiration- brain stem. Chemoreceptors will detect blood pH levels and adjust ventilation rate.
Muscle coordination- cerebellum governs balance n and fine motor movements. It’s main function is maintaining coordination throughout the body.
Hunger- hypothalamus- controls basic drives for hunger, thirst, and sexual attraction.
What is cardiac output formula?
Stroke volume x heart rate
What are the two primary factors determine blood pressure?
Cardiac output and the resistance to blood flow tension in the blood vessels can either reduce or increase blood flow.
What is role of vasoconstriction in blood pressure?
It increases blood pressure. Restricts blood flow to an organ
What is parathyroid hormone and calcitonin do?
Parathyroid hormones helps prevent low calcium levels by actin on the bones, intestine, and kidney. Increase in osteoclast.
Calcitonin is a hormones that C cells in the thyroid gland produce and release. It opposes the action of parathyroid hormone. Inhibits the activity of the osteoclasts.
CalcitonIN bring Ca IN to the bone
ParathRoID - parathyroid gets RID of bone
Why do calcium supplement often include vitamin D?
The activated form of vitamin D stimulates the absorption of calcium into the blood. It across on small intestine to stimulate the absorption of calcium into the bloodstream.
Vitamin C is required in?
Synthesis of bone matrix and bone formation.
What is the function and structure of ribosomes?
Made of RNA and protein. It’s function is to read RNA and synthesize protein.
Has two major subunits. Large and small. Both contains protein and rRNA. It is produced in nucleolus. Location of ribosomes determines location of proteins .
Free floating ribosomes- synthesize proteins to be used within the cell.
Membrane bound ribosomes (to ER) - synthesize proteins to be used outside the cell.
Large subunits - amino acids added
Small subunits- read the mRNA
What consists of ectoderm?
-Epidermis of skin and its derivatives (including sweat glands, hair follicles,)
- nervous system
- epithelial lining of mouth and anus
- cornea and lens of eye
- sensory receptors in epidermis
- adrenal medulla
- tooth enamel
- epithelium of pineal and pituitary glands
What consists of mesoderm?
-notochord
- muscular layer of stomach and intestine
- excretory system
- circulatory and lymphatic systems
- reproductive system (expect germ cell)
- dermis of skin
- lining of body cavity
-adrenal cortex
What consists of endoderm?
-epithelial lining of digestive tract
- epithelial lining is respiratory system
- lining of urethra, urinary bladder, and reproductive system
- liver
- pancreas
- thymus
- thyroid and parathyroid glands
What is the structure of acetylcholine?
Ester of acetic acid and choline(N connected to 3CH3) It can be broken down by cholineestersses.
What is components of neuromuscular junction?
Refers to synapse between a motor neuron and skeletal muscle fiber. It is essential for the contraction of skeletal muscle. The space between the motor neuron and skeletal muscle fiber is synaptic cleft. Skeletal muscle fiber has the motor end plates and junctions folds contain high numbers of ligand gated ion channel receptors for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. End plate potential aka excitatory post synaptic potential EPSP, reaches certain threshold cause opening of Na+ to depolarize the muscle fiber cells. This depolarization starts action potential which will lead to release of Ca+ on the muscle fibers
What is tidal volume of respiration?
Volume of air inspired or expired during normal respiration.
Which hormone is responsible for triggering ovulation?
Luteinizing hormone
What are the phases for ovarian cycle?
- Follicular phase, largest dominant follicle is prepared to be released at ovulation. From start of period to ovulation. Follicle stimulating hormone is released. The dominant follicle produces estrogen as it grows which peaks just before ovulation
2.ovulation, luteinizing hormone causes releases of the egg to occur. Estrogen is dropped after ovulation. - luteal phase - after ovulation, the follicle that held the egg turns into something called corpus luteum. It makes the hormones progesterone and estrogen to support pregnancy. If pregnancy doesn’t occur, corpus luteum breaks down.
Progesterone supports early pregnancy if egg and sperm connect. If no pregnancy, progesterone drops. Drop in estrogen and progesterone causes menstruation.
OFL -Oh Fucking Lord
What are phases of uterine cycle?
- Period - endometrium is thinnest during this phase, estrogen and progesterone are typically at their lowest.
- proliferative phase- end of period until ovulation. Uterus builds up a thick inner lining while ovaries prepare eggs for release. Estrogen typically rises during this phase. This signals the uterine lining to grow.
- secretory phase. Endometrium gets ready to support pregnancy or to break down for menstruation. Progesterone is high,
UPS -uterine cycle, period, proliferation, secretion.
What is avogadros number?
The number of particles per mole of substance.
6.022*10^23
In water carbonate ion turns into?
Co3 -2+H2O=HCO3- +OH-
Which metals form green precipitate and why
Chromium, iron, nickel. Complex ions containing transition metals are usually colored, it is due to partly filled d orbitals. The electrons in the lower energy d or Ilya absorb visible light to move to the higher energy d orbitals.
What is ionization energy?
Is the energy required to remove an electron from the outer shell of an atom. Eg noble gas has a complete outer shell of electrons and therefore it has extremely high ionization energy.
How to find number of protons, electrons and neutrons in an element?
Uncharged element has an equal number of positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons.
Mass number is sum of protons and neutrons.
What is the formula for number of possible peptides that contain each of n amino acid?
n!
Eg n=3
321
What is the conductivity of covalent bond and ionic bonds?
Vast majority of covalent compounds are comprised exclusively of nonmetalic elements and it doesn’t conduct electricity.
Ionic bonds made up of metal and nonmetal. It conduct electricity.
How solution of NaNO3- is basic?
It is a salt. Salts that contain group 1 elements are soluble. NO3- is basic because it can take H from water and leaving OH-
What are the solubility rules?
Always soluble: sag pants will be nagged
Nitrates NO3-
Acetates C2H3O2-
Group 1 metals
Sulfates SO4-2
Ammonium NH4+
Group 17 (F,Cl etc)
Exceptions:
1. PMS - Pb lead, Mercury Hg, silver Ag. Never soluble with sulfates and group 17
2. Castro bear - Ca, Sr, Ba
Never soluble with sulfates.
What is tautomerism?
The isomers interchange into or between one another very easily in order to exist together in equilibrium. During the reaction, proton transfer occurs in an intermolecular fashion. Example is ketone-enol tautomerism. It is constitutional isomers. Have same molecular formula just different connectivity.
Resonance structures are two forms of molecule where the chemical connecting is the same
What is dielectric constant? What is the formula? Examples
Is a measure of its ability to store electrical energy.
K=e/e0
E- permittivity of the substance
e0- permittivity of free space
Dielectric materials has weak electrical conductivity but can store an electrical
Energy. Eg water, glass, PVC plastic
What are the three Newton’s laws?
Law 1: a body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will remain in motion unless it is acted upon by the external force.
Law 2: the force acting on an object is equal to the mass of that object times its acceleration. F=ma
Law 3; for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
What is formula for standard heat of reaction?
Delta H=delta H products - delta H reactants
Delta H=delta H bonds broken- delta H bonds formed
What is difference between Hawthorne effect and impression management and social desirability?
Hawthorne effect- subjects’ behavior in the STUDY is different because they aware being studied.
Impression management- in any social context, a person will alter their behavior to be that of a more socially acceptable manner. Especially on first date or job interviews.
Social desirability- is wanting to be liked by others therefor will act in ways that we may not agree with but do so to be liked.mostly done on surveys
Difference between escape learning and avoidance learning?
Escape learning- you perform an behavior to terminate the ongoing, unpleasant, aversive stimulus. You find a way to escape to get rid of unpleasant condition. DURING undesirable stimulus.
Avoidance learning- you avoid yourself from an threat or something that is unpleasant. Like when you heard a gun shot nearby, you are trying to escape this situation. BEFORE undesirable stimulus .
What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning
The main difference between them is that classical conditioning associates with involuntary behavior with the stimulus while operant conditioning associates voluntary action with a consequence. They both are forms of associative learning using a behavioral approach.
Classical conditioning- is the procedure of learning to associate an unconditioned stimulus that already brings about an involuntary response, or unconditioned response, with a new, neutral stimulus so this new stimulus can also bring about the same response. The new stimulus then becomes conditioned stimulus and newly learned behavior is the conditioned response.
What is marginal poverty?
Involves lacking stable employment. An individual can’t maintain a steady job or find steady job.
What is fundamental attribution error?
Describes the tendency to over value internal (dispositional, personality based) and under value external (situational) explanations for another person’s behavior.
Differences between replication of gene and transcription of a gene?
Replication the DNA doesn’t necessarily mean it will produce the protein. Replication is not part of the central dogma.
Transcription is first big process of producing functions proteins
What are highly proliferative cells?
Cell proliferation occurs as a cell grows and divides into two daughter cells through cell divisions. This complex and highly regulated process increases cell number and allows for the replenishment of cells in healthy, normal tissue. Certain types of cells have different degrees of cell proliferation.
Non highly proliferation cells - human cardiac muscle cells and neuron cells can’t be replaced or go under cell divisions once they are made during embryonic development
Highly proliferation cells- cells with short lifespans that need to be constantly replaced by cell proliferation such as blood cells and epithelial skin cells. Those cells don’t just proliferate themselves, they replaced by the proliferation of stem cells.
While this process is vital in healthy tissues, cancer cells also use proliferation to divide and spread.
Intestinal epithelial cells have the highest proliferation rate in adult humans. As a type of lining, these cells are commonly damaged and need replacement due to the pathogen, high PH, and harsh environments they endure. Also kidney, liver, breast, skin fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells that line blood vessels.
What are the mechanism of uncontrolled cell growth?
Increase of oncogenes -
RAS gene - cell growth proteins for G1/S increase Cdk 2 and cycline
Myg gene- cell growth, cell survival, cell activity.
Decrease in tumor suppressor gene.
p53 - damaged DNA produces p53 which acts like transcription factor. It makes proteins for cell arrest. (P21) which inhibits CDK and cyclin.
Also releases proteins for DNA repair. Also proteins for apoptosis.
APC, barca1/2
What is feedback inhibition and where this could happen in glycolysis
Feedback inhibition involves the use of a reaction product to regulate its own further production. Phosphofructokinase is the main enzyme that is controlled in glycolysis.
It is allosterically inhibited by ATP, citrate, or more acidic pH.
It is allosterically activated by AMP
What is the difference between rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
Rough ER- ribosomes on surface. Pack and process proteins made by ribosomes
Smooth ER- no ribosomes, synthesize lipids, phospholipid and steroids
All cells whether eukaryotic or prokaryotic have?
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Genetic material
Where ribosomes are made
In the nucleolus of the cell.
Transcription factors needs to be inside of?
Nucleus. So it must enter the nucleus and proteins that are translocated into the nucleus usually contain a nuclear localization sequence
Ubiquitination means?
It targets a protein for degradation by a proteasome.
Ubiquitin protein covalently linked to lysine residue of the protein. Those proteins can be misfolded, toxic, or no use in the cell.
Blood from small intestine go to which organ next
Liver which regulates nutrients distribution and removes toxins from blood. It removes ammonia, alcohol and drugs or toxins by metabolizing them.
What is endosome
Endosomes are a heterogenous collection of organelles that function in sorting and delivery of internalized material from the cell surface and the transport of material from the golgi to the lysosome or vacuole.
What is the difference between endosome, lysosome and phagosome?
Lysosome - has hydrolytic enzymes in a low pH condition. Main degrading enzymes provided by this.
Endosome- hydrolytic enzyme containing compartment but it is formed due to the invagination of the cell membranes.
Phagosome- hydrolytic enzyme in low pH but utilization of small vesicles. Phagocytosis- gulfing the bacteria and becomes phagosome and gets together with lysosome to get degraded.
Autophagocytosis- contain own damaged organelles and gets together with lysosome
What is open reading frame?
Sequence of DNA that be translated into protein. This stretch of DNA sequence that has initiation point of translation and termination point of translation and some genes in between to be translated to protein. Start codon- ATG, stop codon- TGA, TAG, TAA. Insertion of nucleotide to open reading frame makes frame shift mutation and can change the reading frame. Proteins translated from N terminus to C terminus, so we add extra nucleotide, we expect C terminus to change.
What is Bernoulli’s principe says and how it is connected to Venturi effect?
When a fluid speeds up, it’s pressure goes down.
P1+pgh+1/2pv2= P2+pgh+1/2pv2
Venturi effect refers constriction in the pipe will lead to lower pressure.
V1/t1=V2/t2
It can get lower than atmospheric pressure which will lead to atmospheric pressure to pulled into the constricted section of the pipe. (How oxygen mask work)
Equilibrium constant is bigger than 1 means?
Delta G=-RTlnK
Big K (larger than1), the natural log must be positive, so overall reaction is spontaneous and delta G -
What is the difference between covalent and coordinate covalent bonds?
Covalent - electrons are equally shared, donating one electron each to make that bond. Eg Br-Br
Coordinate covalent bond- one donates 2 electrons. One doesn’t donate anything. Electron pair comes from one atom. One has lone pair. And on has empty space.
Eg: between Ag and NH3
H2O+H+=H3O
What is classification number for ionic, covalent bonds?
EN differences more than 2 -ionic bond
EN differences less than 1.7 - covalent
Covalent can be polar or non polar
EN differences more than 0.5 polar
EN differences less than 0.5 non polar
What Kinsey scale measures?
Sexuality. Exclusive homosexual is 6. 0 is exclusively heterosexual.
. The Kinsey scale scores a 6, as exclusively homo-sexual. A score of 3 would equate to bisexuality.
Adding or removing proton vs electrons?
Removing or adding proton can’t be happen because it changes the identity of any element. Electrons can be transferred because they are not in the nucleus.
What is primary structure of amino acid look like and secondary and tertiary?
NH2-amino acid 1-amino acid 2…..COOH
Linked together by peptide bond
-C=O-NH-
Secondary structure is made from hydrogen bonds between the backbones of amino acids. Hydrogen bond is between backbone amide protons and carbonyl oxygens. NH-O=C
Tertiary - arrangement of protein in 3D space. It has hydrogen bond, dissulfide bond and hydrophobic interaction and ionic bond. Tertiary and quaternary structures are stabilized by side chain interactions
Energy conversions of battery powered resistive circuit?
Battery -redox reaction which is chemical energy. It is converted to electric current. When current is running, heat is going to dissipate as we have resistance. (Thermal)
What is the equation for work done on elastic object?
W=1/2*kx^2
k -elastic constant
x- length stretched
What are the structures of glycerol and fatty acid look like?
Glycerol- H2C-CH-CH2 each has OH connected.
Fatty acid: HOOC-R (carboxylic acid and R group)
What is difference between ionization energy and electron affinity and electron negativity?
Electron affinity is the energy change that results from adding an electron to a gaseous atom. Eg when a fluorine atom in the gaseous state gains an electron to for F-, the associated energy change is -328kJ/mol. Because this value is negative, energy is released, and electron affinity of F is favorable. N and noble gases on the other hand is 0 and not favorable.
Ionization energy- the energy required to remove an electron from an isolated gaseous atom is the ionization potential. The reactivity of metal depends on the it’s ionization potential.
Electron negativity - a measure of an atom’s ability to attract shared electrons to itself.
How Molecular weight is related to number of moles in gas?
The volume of the gas depends only on the number of moles of gas present and not on the identity of gas. At constant pressure, the volume will increase with temperature. Compounds with higher molecular weight will have lower volume because of fewer mole compared to the molecules that have lower molecular weight.
How phase diagram for water in varies pressure and temperature?
Y axis- pressure
X axis- temperature
It goes from: solid, liquid, gas
