Memory Flashcards
(160 cards)
1
Q
What is the definition of memory?
A
A label used to refer to the storage of information that can be used later in a large number of different cognitive processes
2
Q
What is the definition of capacity?
A
The amount of information that can be stored
3
Q
What is the definition of duration?
A
The length of time the information can be stored
4
Q
What is the definition of encoding?
A
The way in which the information is stored
Information that we store has to be ‘written’ in a memory of some form
5
Q
How can information can be encoded?
A
Acoustically, visually or semantically
Sounds, image or meaning
6
Q
Who conducted the study into the capacity of the STM? When was it conducted?
A
George Miller in 1956
7
Q
What was the name of the study into the capacity of the STM?
A
Magic number 7
8
Q
What did the study into the capacity of the STM propose?
A
Miller concluded that the span of immediate memory us about 7, plus or minus 2
He also found that you are able to remember more if the information is chunked into groups
9
Q
What factors increase the capacity of the STM?
A
Reading aloud
Pronunciation time
Rhythmic grouping
10
Q
Who conducted the study into the duration of the STM?
When was it conducted?
A
Peterson and Peterson in 1959
11
Q
What was the aim of the study into the duration of the STM?
A
To test how long short term memory lasts when rehearsal is prevented
12
Q
Who were the ppts in the study into the duration of the STM?
A
24 ppts were used
13
Q
What was the procedure of the study into the duration of the STM?
A
The 24 ppts were shown a trigram (random 3 letters) and then asked to count backwards in threes from a specified number- this prevented rehearsal
After the internal, the ppts were asked were asked to recall the trigrams
14
Q
What were the findings of the study into the duration of the STM?
A
Progressively fewer trigrams were recalled as time intervals lengthened
After 18 seconds, fewer than 10% of the trigrams were correctly recalled
This suggests that the STM has a very short duration of less than 18 seconds if verbal rehearsal is prevented
15
Q
What factor affects the duration of the STM?
A
Maintenance rehearsal
16
Q
How does maintenance rehearsal affect the duration of the STM?
A
The items decay from the STM only when the rehearsal opportunity is removed. Without rehearsal, the duration of the STM is very brief
17
Q
Who conducted the study into encoding?
When was this study conducted?
A
Alan Baddeley in 1966
18
Q
What was the aim of the study into encoding?
A
To investigate how the STM and LTM encode- either acoustically or semantically
19
Q
Who were the ppts used in the study into encoding?
A
72 males and females from the ‘Applied Psychology Research Unit’ in Cambridge
20
Q
What was the procedure of the study into encoding?
A
72 ppts were split into different conditions
In one condition, ppts learned a list of 10 acoustically similar words e.g. man, can
In the second condition, ppts learned a list of 10 semantically similar words, that meant the same but sounds different e.g. large, big
All ppts were then asked to complete tasks related to remembering the lists, including recalling the words 20 minutes later to test the LTM
21
Q
What were the findings of the study into encoding?
A
Finings showed that the STM encodes acoustically and the LTM encodes semantically
22
Q
What is a limitation of the study into encoding?
Small sample size
A
The small sample size of 72 ppts from Cambridge means the results may be biased by age, culture or individual differences
Also small group size means results are affected by anomalies and individual differences
This means the results cannot be generalised to the wider population
23
Q
What is a limitation of the study into encoding?
Issue with the testing of the LTM
A
As the LTM was tested only 20 minutes after the word lists were learned, this can be considered too short a period of time to be considered the LTM
24
Q
What is a limitation of the study into encoding?
Further research by Frost
A
Further research by Frost (1972) showed that long term recall was related to visual as well as semantic categories
Therefore, the results of the study are not completely accurate as the STM and LTM may encode in a variety of ways, according to the circumstances
25
What is the capacity of the STM?
7, plus or minus 2
26
What affects the capacity of the STM?
Reading aloud
Pronunciation time
Rhythmic grouping
27
What is the duration of the STM?
18-30 seconds without rehearsal
28
What affects the duration of the STM?
Chunking/ grouping
| Maintenance rehearsal
29
How does the STM encode?
Acoustically
30
What is the role of the LTM?
Plans for the future
| Holds knowledge and skills
31
What is the capacity of the LTM?
Unlimited
32
What is the duration of the LTM?
Unlimited
33
What affects the duration of the LTM?
```
Brain damage
Amnesia
Illness
Tiredness
Lack of attention
```
34
How does the LTM encode?
Semantically (by meaning)
35
What is the sensory memory?
Allows you to process and recall the sensations you take in
36
What is the capacity of the sensory memory?
Very large, but attention is only paid to a very small amount of items
37
What is the duration of the sensory memory?
Very small, at around a nanosecond
38
How does the sensory memory encode?
By modality, meaning it encores dependent on what information its given
This could be sound (acoustic), images (visual) or smell (olfactory)
39
Who created the multi-store model of memory?
Atkinson and Shriffin
40
What is the MSM?
The multi-store model of memory
| An explanation of how memory processes work, based on the idea that there are 3 separate stores
41
What 3 stores are in the MSM?
Sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory
42
Draw the MSM
```
Environmental stimuli
Sensory memory
Decay
Attention
STM
Decay
Maintenance rehearsal
Elaborate rehearsal
LTM
Retrieval
```
43
What is a strength of the MSM?
| Research support
There is research support, such as studies into capacity (Miller), duration (Petersons) and encoding (Baddeley)
44
What is a strength of the MSM?
| Simple
It presents a simple and understandable explanation of the processes of memory
Matches common sense perception of memory
45
What is a limitation of the MSM?
| Oversimplified
IT is oversimplified, as the model doesn't distinguish between different STM and LTM stores
e.g. woking memory model and the episodic and procedural memories
46
What is a limitation of the MSM?
| Flashbob
Doesn't explain flashbob memory
| This is when something very bad happens and we don't have to rehires to to remember it
47
What did Glanzer and Cuntis propose and when?
The serial position effect
48
What is the serial position effect?
Occurs because the first words in a list are best rehearsed and transferred to the LTM, and the last words are in the STM when you start recalling them
49
What was the procedure and findings of the study into the serial position effect?
Ppts read a list and were asked to recall words
| They best remembered words from the start (primary effect) and end (recency) of the list
50
What is the name of the model showing processes within the STM?
The working memory model
51
Who created the working memory model and when?
Baddeley and Hitch in 1974
52
What is the purpose of the central executive?
Has a supervisory role
| Determines how resources (slave systems) are allocated and decides tasks
53
What is the capacity of the central executive?
Has a limited capacity
54
What is the purpose of the visuospatial sketchpad?
Visual and spacial information is stored here
Visual- what things look like
Spacial- Relationship between things
55
Who suggested subdivisions of the visuospatial sketchpad and when? What were these subdivisions?
Logie in 1995
Visual cashe (store)
Inner scribe for spacial relations
56
Who added the episodic buffer and when?
Baddeley added the episodic buffer in 2000
57
What is the purpose of the episodic buffer?
Store that integrates information from the other components and maintains a sense of time so events occur in a continuing order
58
What is the purpose of the phonological loop?
Deals with auditory information and preserves word order
59
What did Baddeley subdivide the phonological loop into?
Phonological store- stores the sound of words
| Articulatory process- words are silent repeated/ looped like an inner voice
60
What is a strength of the WMM?
| Subsystems
Researchers today generally agree there is multiple subsystems in the STM which are described in the WMM.
These divisions also explain in detail many memory processes
61
What is a limitation of the WMM?
| Central executive
The exact purpose of the central executive is very unclear as not much research has gone into it. We are still unaware of its capacity and specific role.
62
Who proposed the dual task performance and when?
Baddeley in 1966
63
What were the procedure and findings of the study into the dual task performance?
Ppts performed two tasks simultaneously (dual tasks) rather than one after the other (single task)
Ppts performed better on 1 visual and 1 acoustic task than 2 visual or 2 acoustic tasks
This is because the central executive directs information to 2 separate components
64
What are the 3 types of LTM?
Semantic, episodic and procedural
65
What are semantic memories?
Refer to the knowledge and knowing WHAT
Knowledge that is shared universally
They generally begin as an episodic memory
e.g. 2+2=4
66
What are episodic memories? How many parts are they made up of?
```
Made up of 3 parts
The context (where you were)
details about the event
Emotions
e.g. your first day of school
```
67
What are procedural memories?
Refer to skills and HOW to do something
Unconscious memory that is acquired through repetition and practise
e.g. riding a bike
68
Where in the brain are semantic memories stored?
Temporal lobe
69
Where in the brain are episodic memories stored?
Involved with the hippocampus and temporal lobe
70
Where in the brain are procedural memories stored?
Cerebellum
71
How can we know where the types of LTM are stored in the brain? Why is this a strength?
Brain scans
| Very objective an unbiased
72
List 3 reasons why we forget
- Lack of interest or attention
- No maintenance rehearsal
- Amnesia or other illness
- Tiredness/ fatigue
- Retrieval failure
- Trauma
73
What is interference?
An explanation for forgetting in terms of one memory that is disrupting the ability to recall another
This is most likely to happen when the two memories are quite similar
74
What is proactive interference?
Past learning interferes with current attempts to learn something new
e.g. trying to learn a new pin code but keep entering the old one
75
What is retroactive interference?
Current attempts to learn something new interferes with the recall of past learning
e.g. Trying to go back to your old pin code but keep entering the newer one
76
Who conducted the study into the effects of interference?
Baddeley and Hitch
For Hitch, think rugby pitch
77
What was the aim of the study into interference?
To investigate effects of interference in an everyday setting
78
Who were the ppts in the study into interference?
Two conditions:
1. Rugby players that had played ALL the games in the season
2. Rugby players who had played less games in the season due to injury
79
What was the procedure of the study into interference?
The ppts (rugby players) in both conditions were asked to recall the teams played in earlier games
80
What were the findings of the study into interference?
The rugby players who had played more games remembered less team names due to RETROactive (think Rugby) interference
The number of recently played teams interfered with the recall of the earlier teams names
81
What is a strength of the study into interference?
| Real life study
It was a real life study (real rugby players, real team names etc) so has high ecological validity
Less likely to be affected by demand characteristics
82
What is a limitation of the study into interference?
| Sample size
Small sized study so findings cannot be generalised to the wider population
Only you males were used (beta bias)
Factors like individual differences would have been involved
83
What did Danahers suggest in reference to interference?
| This acts as a strength
Danahers stated that real- life application of interference can be found through methods used in advertising
Interference can be seen with the use of similar colours, names and packaging, prompting people to buy based on advertising by another company
e.g. Ariel spent lots on advertising, and Persil designed packaging to look similar
84
What is retrieval failure?
When the information is stored in the LTM, but cannot be accessed as the retrieval cues are not present
85
What is an example of retrieval failure?
Needing a pen from your room, going to your room, forgetting what you needed
86
What are retrieval cues?
A clue or prompt that is used to trigger the retrieval of long-term memory
87
When we learn information, what do we also encode?
| In reference to retrieval failure/ forgetting
The context and state
88
What is context dependent forgetting?
Can occur when the environment during recall is different from the environment you were in when learning
External cues
89
What is an example of an external cue in context dependent forgetting?
Location
90
What is state dependent forgetting?
Mental state dependent forgetting occurs when your mood or physiological state during recall is different from the mood you were in when learning
Internal cues
91
What is an example of an internal cue in state dependent forgetting?
Emotions
| Sober/ intoxicated
92
Who theorised the encoding specificity principle?
Tulving and Thompson
93
What does the encoding specificity principle propose?
This proposes that memory is most effective if information that is present at encoding is also available at the time of recall
It doesn't have to be exactly the same, but similar- to act as a prompt
94
Who conducted the study into context dependent forgetting?
Godden and Baddeley
95
What was the aim of the study into context dependent forgetting?
To investigate the effect of environment on recall
96
Who were the ppts of the study into context dependent forgetting?
18 divers from a Scotland diving club
97
What was the procedure of the study into context dependent forgetting?
The 18 divers were asked to learn and recall a list of 36 unrelated words of 2-3 syllables (e.g. rosetip)
They did this in 4 conditions
98
What were the 4 conditions of the study into context dependent forgetting?
1. Learn on beach, recall on beach
2. Learn on beach, recall underwater
3. Learn underwater, recall underwater
4. Learn underwater, recall on beach
99
What were the results (statistics) of the study into context dependent forgetting?
1. Learn on beach, recall on beach = 13.5%
2. Learn on beach, recall underwater = 8.6%
3. Learn underwater, recall underwater = 11.4%
4. Learn underwater, recall on beach = 8.5%
100
What were the findings (conclusion) of the study into context dependent forgetting?
The results show that the context acted as a cue to recall, as the ppts recalled more words when they learnt and recalled in the same environment then when they learnt and recalled in different environments
101
What is a strength of the study into context dependent forgetting?
Abernathy
In 1940, Abernathy found that students performed better in tests if the tests took place in the same room as the learning, and were administered by the same instructor who had taught the material
102
What is a strength of the study into context dependent forgetting?
Real life application
This has real life application
| Eye witnesses are asked to describe the context in which the incident took place to help them remember what had happened
103
What is a strength of the study into context dependent forgetting?
Controlled
This was a controlled experiment
| So can be replicated and reliability can be tested
104
What is a limitation of the study into context dependent forgetting?
Artificial
The tasks were artificial, as the divers learnt lists of meaningless words
Has no relevance to tasks in everyday life
Divers would not have had motivation to remember the words as they were insignificant
Limited ecological validity
Not generalisable to wider population
105
What is a limitation of the study into context dependent forgetting?
Sample size
Very limited sample size of 18 divers
| Not representative of wider population due to gender and cultural bias
106
Who conducted the study into state dependent forgetting?
Goodwin et al
107
What was the aim of the study into state dependent forgetting?
To investigate the effect of state on recall
108
Who were the ppts in the study into state dependent forgetting?
48 male medical students
109
What was the procedure of the study into state dependent forgetting?
The ppts allocated to 4 conditions
| Performed a variety of tests over a period of 2 days
110
What were the 4 condition in the study into state dependent forgetting?
SS- sober on both days
AA- intoxicated on both days
AS- intoxicated on day 1 and sober on day 2
SA- sober on day 1 and intoxicated on day 2
111
How much alcohol did the intoxicated group have in their blood?
100ml
| Showed signs of intoxication
112
What were the findings of the study into state dependent forgetting?
Performance was best in ppts who were sober or intoxicated on both days
This supports state dependent forgetting, as mental and physiological state has an impact on memory
113
What is a strength of the study into state dependent forgetting?
Overton
Supportive study by Overton
In 1964, Overton experimented with 2 groups of rats
The first was given a mild drug, and the second was not
They were then placed in a simple maze and taught to escape an electric shock
The rats were later placed into the same maze and it was found they could not solve it unless in the same state (with or without drug) as when learning occurred
114
What is a strength of the study into state dependent forgetting?
Real life applications
Eye- witnesses too. crime are asked to describe their mood and emotions when the incident took place
This helps to increase memory accuracy
115
What is a strength of the study into state dependent forgetting?
Controlled
It was a controlled experiment
| So can be replicated to test for reliability
116
What is a limitation of the study into state dependent forgetting?
Artificial
The tasks were artificial, so wouldn't reflect the way people do things in their everyday lives
Limited ecological validity and not generalisable to entire population
Could be resolved by using tasks that the wide population relate to, increasing real- life application
117
What is a limitation of the study into state dependent forgetting?
Sample
Th sample consisted of 48 male medical students, so the results may have been effected by gender or cultural bias
Cannot be generated to wider population
Study could be expanded to include a variety of ethnicities and genders, so there wouldn't be as significant individual differences and bias in the results
118
What is a limitation of the study into state dependent forgetting?
Demand characteristics
The ppts may have subconsciously changed their behaviour as they know there being tested
119
What is a leading question?
A question that either by form or content suggests a desired answer or leads a witness to believe a desired answer
They contain misleading pieces of information or wording and are usually closed
120
What is an eye witness?
Someone who has seen or witnessed a crime
121
What is an eye witness testimony?
The evidence provide in court by an eye witness, with an aim to identifying the perpetrator
122
Who conducted the studies into leading questions?
Loftus and Palmer
123
What was the aim the studies into leading questions?
| post- event info
To investigate the effects of post- event information on ppts memory of a car crash
124
Who were the ppts in the first study into leading questions?
45 students
125
What was the procedure of the first study into leading questions?
The 45 students were shown a film of a traffic accident
The students were then split into groups and asked to complete a questionnaire
In the questionnaire, there was 1 critical question about how fast the cars were going-each with a different verb
126
What was the critical question in the first study into leading questions?
How fast were the cars going when they _ each other?
127
What were the 5 verbs used in the critical question in the first experiment into leading questions?
```
Hit
Bumped
Collided
Contacted
Smashed
```
128
What were the results (statistics) of the first study into leading questions?
```
# Hit- 34mph
# Bumped- 38mph
Collided- 39mph
Contacted- 31mph
# Smashed- 40mph
```
129
What were the findings (conclusion) of the first study into leading questions?
The critical questions containing verbs with connotations of increased speed led to higher speed estimates
130
Who were the ppts in the second study into leading questions?
150 students
131
What was the procedure of the second study into leading questions?
The 150 students were shown a short film that showed a car accident
They were split into 3 groups (one group was a control)
They were then asked questions about how fast the cars were going- each with a different verb
They returned a week later and asked: 'Did you see any broken glass?' (there was none in the film)
132
What were the 3 groups asked in the second study into leading questions?
How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?
Control- Asked nothing about the speed
133
What were the results of the second study into leading questions?
Smashed: YES: 16 NO: 34
Hit: YES: 7 NO: 43
Control: YES: 6 NO: 44
134
What is a strength of the studies into leading questions?
| Lab
Occurred in a lab setting, meaning there was a standardised procedure
Can be replicated to check for consistent and reliable results
Also higher controls over extraneous variables
Increases internal validity
135
What is a strength of the studies into leading questions?
| Real life application
Real life application shows how leading questions have an effect on eye witness testimonies
This has led to changes in the way the police question witnesses
Now use the CIT
136
What is a limitation of the studies into leading questions?
| Lab
The lab setting may cause the ppts to show unnatural behaviour
Increase demand characteristics
Decrease validity
137
What is a limitation of the studies into leading questions?
| Artificial
The procedure used an artificial situation, as the students were asked to recall info from a film
If the ppts witnessed this in real life, it may have a different effect on their memories - anxiety and the Yerkes- Dodson law shows this
138
What is a limitation of the studies into leading questions?
| Sample
The first study used a small sample of 45 students so the results were influenced by demand characteristics
Both studies used young Americans
Impacted by gender, age and cultural bias
Studies could be expanded to include a wider variety of ethnicities, ages and genders
139
Who conducted the study into the weapon- focus effect?
Johnson and Scott
140
What was the aim of the study into the weapon- focus effect?
To test the influence of anxiety on EW
141
What was the procedure the study into the weapon- focus effect?
Two groups of people were in waiting rooms
The ppts heard an argument from a nearby room, then someone enters the room holding either
C1. A pen covered in grease
C2. A paper knife covered in blood
The ppts were then asked to identify the man from 50 photos
142
What were the results (statistics) of the study into the weapon- focus effect?
When asked to identify the man from 50 photos, the ppts in condition 1 were 49% accurate, but the pmts in condition 2 were only 33% accurate
143
What were the findings (conclusion) of the study into the weapon- focus effect?
The results support that in violent crimes, arousal may focus the witness onto more central details of the attack (weapon) then more peripheral details (the person)
144
What is a strength of the study into the weapon- focus effect?
Controlled
The procedure was a controlled observation with standardised procedures that can be repeated to test for consistency and reliability
145
What is a strength of the study into the weapon- focus effect?
Real life application
Real life application as its evidence for how in violent crimes, the witnesses attention is drawn to the weapon rather than the person holding it
Explains why some EW recall of violent crimes is poor
146
What is a limitation of the study into the weapon- focus effect?
Ethical issues
The ppts in condition 2 were exposed to a bloody knife which may cause emotional harm, especially if they have experienced trauma in the past
147
What is a limitation of the study into the weapon- focus effect?
Pickel
A criticism of the study came from Pickel, who proposed that the weapons- focus effect was not due to anxiety, but rather surprise
To test this, she arranged a thief to enter a hairdressing salon in a variety of conditions, including holding scissors, a gun and a raw chicken
The chicken represented low threat but high surprise
The findings showed that accurate identification of the thief was worse in the high surprise condition
This supports that anxiety is not involved in the weapons-focus effect
148
What does the Yerkes- Dodson law propose?
There is a positive correlation between stress and performance (good stress) until an optimal point, where stress then decreases performance (bad stress)
149
What does the CIT stand for?
Cognitive interview technique
150
What is the CIT?
A questioning technique used by the police to produce retrieval cues and help jog the witnesses memory
151
How many techniques does the CIT consist of?
4
152
What are the 4 techniques of the CIT?
Mental reinstatement of original context
Report everything
Recall from changed perspective
Recall in reverse order
153
In the CIT, what is meant by mental reinstatement of original context?
Interviewer will ask the witness to recall the scene
e.g. weather, thoughts, feelings, location
This allows for retrieval cues which help the recall of memory
154
In the CIT, what is meant by report everything?
Interviewer will ask the witness to report every detail they can, even if it seems trivial (a small detail)
This allows for retrieval cues which help the recall of memory
It could also be the detail that ties other witnesses statements together
155
In the CIT, what is meant by recall from a changed perspective?
Try to describe the events as it would have been seen from different viewpoints
Breaks an individuals schema (mental framework) of the event
156
In the CIT, what is meant by recall in reverse order?
Repeat the events in several different temporal (time) orders, moving backwards and forwards in time
Breaks an individuals schema of the event
157
What is a strength of the CIT?
| Real life application
The CIT has real life application as it is widely used within the criminal justice system to help witnesses recall information to help catch the perpetrator
158
What is a strength of the CIT?
| Cues
Helps to produce retrieval cues which are used to jog the witnesses memory of an event and thus help to catch the perpetrator
159
What is a limitation of the CIT?
| Training
It is expensive and time consuming to train the interviewees needed for the CIT
160
What is a limitation of the CIT?
| Human error
Witnesses could be biased, inaccurate, lie or suffer from human error
Would not help the case and could slow down investigation
