Memory

Question 1

What is state-dependent forgetting?

Answer 1

Occurs when internal cues at the time of encoding do not match those present at recall.

Demonstrated by Carter and Cassaday (1998) with anti-histamines affecting internal cues.

Question 2

Why may findings from studies of retrieval failure lack ecological validity?

Answer 2

Difficult to find real-life conditions as polar as those in experiments, like water and land.

Baddeley questioned context effects in normal life.

Question 3

What did Godden and Baddeley’s underwater experiment reveal about retrieval failure?

Answer 3

Significant difference in recognition accuracy between matched and non-matched conditions.

Suggests retrieval failure may not universally explain forgetting.

Question 4

What is eyewitness testimony (EWT)?

Answer 4

Information recalled about a crime by an eyewitness.

Accuracy can be reduced by misleading information.

Question 5

What did Loftus and Palmer (1974) study regarding leading questions?

Answer 5

Investigated how leading questions affect speed estimates of cars in a crash film clip.

Participants exposed to ‘smashed’ estimated higher speeds than those exposed to ‘contacted’.

Question 6

What are post-event discussions?

Answer 6

Discussions between co-witnesses after a crime that can influence recall accuracy.

Gabbert et al (2003) found 71% inaccuracy rates from such discussions.

Question 7

What is memory conformity?

Answer 7

The tendency to adopt incorrect details from others due to believing they are correct.

Highlights how discussions can lead to misinformation.

Question 8

How do demand characteristics affect EWT studies?

Answer 8

Participants may give answers they think are expected, reducing reliability.

Influenced by social desirability bias.

Question 9

What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law?

Answer 9

Suggests an inverted-U relationship between arousal and performance, with moderate arousal yielding the best performance.

Over-simplifies the complexities of anxiety.

Question 10

What did Johnson and Scott (1976) find about anxiety’s effect on EWT?

Answer 10

High anxiety led to 16% lower rates of accurate recall compared to low anxiety conditions.

Explained by tunnel theory and weapon focus effect.

Question 11

What did Yuille and Cutshall (1986) discover regarding high anxiety and EWT?

Answer 11

High anxiety eyewitnesses had an 11% higher accuracy of recall compared to low anxiety.

Suggests heightened anxiety may enhance attention to details.

Question 12

What is the cognitive interview?

Answer 12

A method of interviewing eyewitnesses designed to improve accurate recall.

Includes stages like reporting everything and reinstating context.

Question 13

What does the enhanced cognitive interview focus on?

Answer 13

The social dynamics of interactions between the eyewitness and interviewer.

Developed by Fisher et al (1987).

Question 14

What are the criticisms of the cognitive interview?

Answer 14

• Time-consuming
• Requires specialist skills

Lack of adequate training may reduce its practical value.

Question 15

What was found by Kohnken et al (1999) regarding the CI?

Answer 15

Increases recall of correct information by 81% but also incorrect information by 61%.

Raises concerns about overall reliability.

Question 16

Which two steps of the cognitive interview yield the greatest accuracy?

Answer 16

• Context reinstatement
• Report everything

Suggested by Milne and Bull (2002) for effective training.

Question 17

What is coding in memory?

Answer 17

The format or ‘type’ of information stored in each memory store.

Coding is acoustic in short-term memory and semantic in long-term memory.

Question 18

What does capacity refer to in memory?

Answer 18

The volume of information/data that can be kept in any memory store at one time.

Capacity of STM is thought to be 7 +/- 2 items, while LTM is unlimited.

Question 19

What is the duration of short-term memory?

Answer 19

18-30 seconds.

Demonstrated by Petersen et al (1959).

Question 20

What is the duration of long-term memory?

Answer 20

Unlimited.

Shown by Bahrick et al (1975).

Question 21

What is the capacity of short-term memory according to Miller?

Answer 21

7 +/- 2 items.

Miller’s idea suggests that we remember in groups of 7.

Question 22

What did Jacobs demonstrate about memory span for letters and numbers?

Answer 22

Mean letter span was 7.3 and mean digit span was 9.3.

This indicates the number of letters or digits recalled after increasing intervals.

Question 23

What is a strength of Bahrick et Al’s 1975 study?

Answer 23

Use of meaningful stimuli and high ecological validity.

Findings can be generalized to real-life situations.

Question 24

What is maintenance rehearsal?

Answer 24

Repeating new information to ourselves to keep it in STM.

Prolonged maintenance rehearsal allows passage into LTM.

Question 25

What are the different types of long-term memory?

Answer 25

Episodic, semantic, and procedural. ## Footnote Each type serves a different function in memory recall.

Question 26

What does episodic memory describe?

Answer 26

Memories with personal meaning, including details about when and how events occurred. ## Footnote Examples include memories of weddings or first meetings.

Question 27

What is semantic memory?

Answer 27

Memories of the world and associated knowledge, such as understanding concepts. ## Footnote Example includes using information from one concept to understand another.

Question 28

What does procedural memory entail?

Answer 28

Memories of learned skills, such as swimming or driving.

Question 29

How are episodic and semantic memories recalled compared to procedural memories?

Answer 29

Episodic and semantic memories must be recalled consciously; procedural memories are recalled unconsciously.

Question 30

What is the multi-store memory model (MSM)?

Answer 30

A model representing how memory is stored, transferred, retrieved, and forgotten. ## Footnote It includes sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Question 31

What is the capacity and duration of the sensory register?

Answer 31

Huge capacity but duration of less than half a second.

Question 32

What is the role of attention in memory storage?

Answer 32

Information passes from sensory register to short-term memory only if we pay attention to it.

Question 33

What is the issue with the MSM regarding types of long-term memory?

Answer 33

It sees LTM as a single, unitary store, ignoring different types of LTM. ## Footnote Different types can be retrieved unconsciously or consciously.

Question 34

What is a limitation of the MSM in representing short-term memory?

Answer 34

It incorrectly represents STM as a single, unitary store. ## Footnote Research by Shallice and Warrington indicated multiple types of STM.

Question 35

What types of LTM were impaired in the cases of HM and Clive Wearing?

Answer 35

Episodic memory ## Footnote HM and Clive Wearing showed impairments in episodic memory while other types, like procedural and semantic, remained unaffected.

Question 36

What abilities did Clive Wearing retain despite his memory impairment?

Answer 36

Skillfully playing the piano and understanding the concept of music ## Footnote This demonstrates the preservation of procedural and semantic memory despite impaired episodic memory.

Question 37

What are the main components of the Working Memory Model (WMM)?

Answer 37

Central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, episodic buffer ## Footnote These components work together to process and manage different types of information.

Question 38

What is the role of the central executive in the WMM?

Answer 38

An attentional process with limited processing capacity that allocates tasks to the slave systems.

Question 39

What does the phonological loop do?

Answer 39

Processes auditory information and allows for maintenance rehearsal.

Question 40

What are the two sub-components of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

Answer 40

Inner scribe and visual cache.

Question 41

What is the capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad according to Baddeley?

Answer 41

Around 4-5 chunks.

Question 42

What is the function of the episodic buffer in the WMM?

Answer 42

Integrates all types of data processed by other stores and links STM to LTM.

Question 43

What criticism exists regarding the definition of the central executive?

Answer 43

The term 'process' is vague and may suggest multiple sub-components or a larger component within working memory.

Question 44

What do studies of dual-task performance suggest about the central executive?

Answer 44

It has a very limited processing capacity and the slave systems compete for tasks and resources.

Question 45

What is interference in the context of memory?

Answer 45

When the recall of one memory blocks the recall of another, causing forgetting or distorted perceptions ## Footnote Interference can be retroactive or proactive.

Question 46

Define retroactive interference.

Answer 46

New memories block the recollection of old memories.

Question 47

Define proactive interference.

Answer 47

Old memories block the recollection of new memories.

Question 48

What did Baddeley and Hitch find regarding rugby players and recall?

Answer 48

The number of games played since was more important than total time playing for recall.

Question 49

What does the concept of retrieval failure suggest?

Answer 49

Forgetting occurs when cues present at encoding are not available at recall.

Question 50

What is Tulving's 'encoding specificity principle' (ESP)?

Answer 50

Forgetting occurs when the cues at encoding do not match those at recall.

Question 51

What are the two types of forgetting associated with cues?

Answer 51

* Context-dependent forgetting * State-dependent forgetting

Question 52

What is context-dependent forgetting?

Answer 52

Forgetting occurs when external cues at encoding do not match those at recall.

Question 53

What did Godden and Baddeley (1975) find regarding deep-water divers?

Answer 53

Recall was significantly larger in matching conditions than non-matching conditions.

Question 54

How many conditions were involved in Godden and Baddeley's study on retrieval failure?

Answer 54

Four conditions involving underwater and on land encoding and recall.