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BIOL 215 > Midterm 3 > Flashcards

Midterm 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Aquatic Communities - 2 types

7 and 1

A

Marine: intertidal, sub-tidal kelp beds, continental shelf, open ocean, deep ocean, coral reefs and arctic/antartic
Freshwater lakes

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2
Q

Vertical Zonation

A

This is the phenomenon associated with the different strata.

Generally, narrow bands that species live within strata

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3
Q

Sub-tidal Kelp Bed Communities

A

Highest primary productivity of all communities on the planet
Provides physical protection to shoreline communities
Foraging and shelter for a large number of species
These are stratified habitats

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4
Q

Zonation of Pelagic Zone (5)

A 
Epipelagic (0-200m)
Mesopelagic (200-1000m)
Bathypelagic (1000-4000m)
Hadal (4000-6000m)
Benthic - seafloor
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5
Q

Coral Reefs

A

Tropical waters have very little phytoplankton so coral reefs with zooxanthellae symbionts provide the basis of the trophic pyramid
Greatest species diversity on the planet
Highly efficient recycling of nutrients

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6
Q

Arctic (6)

A

mainly frozen ocean surrounded by land
4000m water depth, 3m ice cover
upper 15m reduced salinity from large rivers
A complex layering of Atlantic and Pacific waters
High abundance of plankton in summer, arctic cod, seals, beluga, narwhal, bowhead whale
The polar bear is a terrestrial predator

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7
Q

Antarctic (6)

A

Large frozen continent surrounded by the ocean 98% ice cover up to 2 km in thickness
Mountainous 4500m elevation
Low species diversity - bacteria, lichen penguins
Surrounding very cold oceans with high primary productivity and species diversity
Weddell seal, leopard seal, elephant seal, penguins, Orca, humpback
No terrestrial predator

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8
Q

Lake Classification (4)

A

Oligotrophic - clear water lakes (low productivity)
Dystrophic - stained (tea-coloured) lakes (low productivity), very acidic
Mesotrophic - intermediate productivity
Eutrophic - high productivity lakes

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9
Q

Lake Stratification Summer

A

Wind causes mixing within Epilimnion
Separating layer (thermocline)
With cold water below (hypolimnion)

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10
Q

Lake Stratification Fall and Spring

A

Constant mixing of the whole water column
Due to max density of water at night in fall causes it to fall and mix
In spring ice melt sinks and mixes

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11
Q

Lake Stratification WInter

A

Frozen top with an upper oxygen environment
And an oxygen sparse dead zone at the bottom
Due to decomposition occurring down there

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12
Q

Tundra

A 
3-6 months of darkness with ice/snow
Permafrost
Cold hardy plants
Surface soil thaws in summer
3 Strata -- Soil, ground, low shrubs
Many aquatic/terrestrial insects
Shorebirds, waterfowl (seasonal migrants)
Hare, fox, wolves, caribou, grizzly bear, polar bear 
High productivity during spring/summer
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13
Q

Temperate Coniferous Forests (Taiga/boreal forest)

A 
Conifers
Few shrubs 
The ground layer of ferns and mosses
Trees with monopodial growth
4 strata -- trees, shrubs, ground, soil
Short summers and long cold winters (slow decomposition)
Seasonal migrants
Occasional hibernation/torpor for residents
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14
Q

Temperate Rainforest

A

Ancient trees
4 Strata with high 3D structural complexity
Multiple species of fungi, mosses, angiosperms
High insect diversity
Species-rich riparian zones
1000 yr for seral stage recovery, after clear cut
Greatest biomass/ha for all terrestrial ecosystems on the planet

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15
Q

Tropical forests

A

6 Strata
A - emergent trees over 60m (discontinuous)
B - up to 20m (discontinuous)
C - lowest trees (continuous canopy)
D - Shrub layer, tall ferns and herbs
E - Ground layer, herbaceous plants and seedlings
F - Root/soil layer (shallow and poorly developed)
High species diversity of most taxonomic groups
High biological turnover, high recycling of nutrients
A and F are connected by vines (many epiphytes)

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16
Q

Relative nitrogen levels in strata of different ecosystems

A

Arctic – Tundra has most (90%) in soil and Taiga has about 50% in soil
Temperate – Grassland has about 30% in soil and Deciduous forests have 40% in the soil
Tropical – Savannah and Equatorial forest have similar proportion with very little in soil (<10%)

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17
Q

Polar Cell

A

Between the arctic tundra and temperate forests

Cold dry air falls

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18
Q

Ferrell Cell

A

Between the temperate forests and the deserts

Subsidence zones, cold dry air sinks

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19
Q

Hadley Cell

A

Between equatorial forests and deserts
Hot moist air rises from the equator and forms cumulus clouds
High cool dry air moves north and south and cools more

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20
Q

Latitudinal Diversity Gradient

A

This shows that generally, species diversity increases as you move towards the equator
Diversity can also differ along with the same latitude

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21
Q

Ocean depth in terms of diversity

A

Unique in that increasing depth doesn’t seem to affect the species diversity
Very consistent across the different depths

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22
Q

Marine Productivity Trends

A

Highest productivity at the poles where the cold water is nutrient-rich
This is because water sinks at 4 degrees displacing colder water up mixing in nutrients
Desert across most of the open ocean
Decent productivity at the equator due to polar currents bringing in nutrients from the rotation of the earth

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23
Q

Terrestrial Productivity Trends

A

Most of the primary productivity on land occurs at the equator
During our summer the northern hemisphere has higher productivity and during our winter the southern hemisphere has higher productivity

Productivity is mostly controlled by a combination of temperature and rainfall

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24
Q

Sunlight variation from poles to the equator

A

They generally receive the same amount of sunlight (~ 1:1)

The difference is that the equator receives more solar energy from the direct impact of photons

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25
Q

Competition theory

A

At temperate latitude, the lower productivity causes broader niches and r-selection which don’t allow for as many species
At tropical latitudes, the higher productivity causes narrower niches and k-selected allowing for more species

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26
Q

Spatial heterogeneity theory

A

Increased spatial heterogeneity causes an increase in structural complexity and this allows for more niche segregation
This means more species

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27
Q

Environmental Age Theory

A

This predicts that the older the environment is following some kind of succession, the more species richness you expect to find
Increase species richness with environmental age

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28
Q

Major explanations for differences in species richness (4)

A

Primary productivity
Competition
Spatial heterogeneity
Environmental Age

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29
Q

Hypotheses on biodiversity, complexity and stability (3)

A

Diversity-stability hypothesis (Charles Elton)
The linear increase in stability as # of species increases (tropics)

Rivet Hypothesis (Paul and Anne Erhlich)
The exponential increase in stability as species increase slows down as # of species gets large

Redundancy Hypothesis (Brian Walker)
Flatline of stability increases at large species numbers, a sharp decrease in stability if keystone species is lost
(Intertidal communities)

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30
Q

Island species numbers compared to mainland

A

There are disproportional fewer species numbers on islands for their area size
The slope of species numbers from the area is much lower on islands (this slope is independent of distance from the mainland)

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31
Q

What causes the cyclicity and high turnover of islands?

A

The lack of predators (predation) allows species to go above carrying capacity and then crash
This causes the cyclicity that allows for a high turnover rate
A small population of a species are prone to extinction

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32
Q

Essential features of Equilibrium Theory (3)

A

The number of species moves towards an equilibrium between extinction and colonization as a function of island area and distance

At equilibrium, actual species composition is in a continuous state of change as some species go extinct and new species colonize (high turnover as species equilibrium is reached)

Can predict numbers of species but not the species composition

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33
Q

What occurs after the defaunation of small islands

A

The small islands that were closest to the mainland has the best and fastest recovery
They also noticed that the species that persist on the islands after tend to be the species that originally occupied that island
Becuase those species had specific attributes for that niche space

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34
Q

Where does speciation occur on a 3D biogeographical process map?

A

The highest levels of speciation occur on isolated islands of a large area.
This helps to increase species richness on very isolated islands

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35
Q

Human Population Growth Trend

A

A rather gradual increase since 10 000 BC
With only about 1/2 million people in 1700
Exponential increase up to almost 8 billion people in 2021

36
Q

Major Impacts on Earths Ecosystem from Human Population Growth (2)

A

Habitat loss and habitat change

37
Q

Deforestation Classes (3)

A

Selective Cutting - removal of single trees by helicopter
Leaves small gaps in the canopy where seedlings can develop
Most similar to natural disturbance, cost-prohibitive in most areas

Variable retention - leave representative old-growth in each cut block (10-30% retention), low-profit margin due to high costs of road construction

Clear Cutting - remove all trees in patches up to 2000 ha (80-year rotation), most invasive, most widespread around the globe, greatest profit margin

38
Q

Lateritic soils

A

Soils leached of silica after deforestation
Higher concentration of iron, manganese, aluminum, nickel
These heavy metals run into the ocean and kill corals

39
Q

Fragmentation

A

This is a major threat to earth ecosystems that are caused by human population growth
Building roads increases the amount of edge present and this, in turn, increases the ecotone.
The result is a decrease in population

40
Q

Habitat Change: Atmospheric contaminants (7)

A 
Carbon dioxide 
Black carbon 
Methane 
Nitrogen trifluoride 
Chlorofluorocarbons 
Sulphur dioxide 
Radioactivity
41
Q

Evidence carbon dioxide rise is due to burning fossil fuels?

A

Ice cores in the arctic allow us to see trapped air bubbles of CO2 from history
We can plot these to show the cyclic rise and fall of CO2 over time with a large spike in our time
Living plants absorb C12, C13 and C14 but dead plants absorb no more.
C14 is unstable and decomposes over time (all gone after ~1 MY)
Burning fossil fuels, therefore, releases carbon into the atmosphere with no C14
You can measure atmospheric levels of C14 and compare this to amounts of C12 and C13 in the atmosphere

42
Q

Ecological impacts of global warming on terrestrial ecosystems (9)

A

Northern range expansion of southern species
Reduction or loss of Arctic species, seasonal migrants
Loss of tundra, permafrost, sea ice
Sea level rise and flooding of coastal zones
Increase major weather events
Loss of species with restricted distributions
Increased human mortality during elevated summer temperatures
Ecological shifts to early seral stage communities
Exacerbates the effects of habitat loss

43
Q

Black Carbon

A

This results from the incomplete combustion of carbon

It is responsible for 50% of temperature increase in the arctic

44
Q

Methane

A

A single molecule of methane is more impactful on climate change than CO2

45
Q

Nitrogen trifluoride

A

Industrial gas used in semiconductor manufacture

Radiative efficiency and global warming potential are relative to a molecule of carbon dioxide = 17 200 times

46
Q

Chlorofluorocarbons

A 
inert non-reactive solvent 
Rises high into the atmosphere 
UV breaks off Cl and disrupts Ozone by making OCl
OCl is broken and creates O2
This breaks down the ozone layer
47
Q

Sulphur dioxide

A

Counteracts atmospheric warming but produces smog

This produces acid rain

48
Q

Radioactivity

A

Does not directly lead to global warming as it produces very few greenhouse gases
The major issue is a nuclear failure, which comes with a high environmental, human and financial cost

49
Q

Aquatic Effects (5)

A 
Ocean warming
Ocean acidification 
oil spills 
Industrial chemicals and Biocides 
Plastics
50
Q

Ocean Warming

A

Results in melting sea ice

And major damage to coral reefs

51
Q

Ocean acidification

A

This is caused by an increase in CO2 being dissolved in the ocean
Causes issues for calcifying organisms
Reduces iron availability to marine phytoplankton
Ocean acidification also poses a major risk to coral reefs

52
Q

Industrial Chemicals and Biocides

A

These are often washed into major water sources either intentionally or without our knowing
They build up as they move through the trophic levels
The movement of animals can transfer these chemicals very far and even into pristine environments

53
Q

The major threat to the integrity of earth ecosystems (2)

A

Habitat loss/modification

Overfishing/overhunting

54
Q

What do we need to know, to understand the ecological impact of wildlife imports (2)

A

The population of the animals and the duration of the import

55
Q

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

A

Scientific authority of climate change
Major agency assessing global trends
1988

56
Q

CITES

A

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

1975

57
Q

Shelter Footprint (4)

A

How many people live in your household
What is the size of your home
Which housing type best describes your home
Do you have electricity in your home

58
Q

Food Footprint (2)

A

How often do you eat animal-based products?

How much of the food you eat is processed, packaged, imported

59
Q

Mobility Footprint (4)

A

How often do you drive
How often do you bus
How often do you carpool
The efficiency of your car

60
Q

What is missing from the ecological footprint?

A

There are no mention of how many children you have
This is a major impact on your footprint
As population growth is one of the major drivers behind climate change

61
Q

Kyoto Protocol (1997)

A

The objective was to reduce the rate of global warming by limiting the release of greenhouse gases
195 countries signed
ratified 2005, first implemented 2008-2012
Doha amendment in 2012

62
Q

Paris Agreement (2015)

A

Aimed at limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees and pursue efforts to limit the rise to 1.5 degrees
194 countries signed (the US withdraws 2019)

63
Q

IUCN definition of protected area

A

An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means

64
Q

IUCN category I

A

Strict nature reserve/wilderness area
Ia: Strict nature reserve: managed mainly for science (Ecological reserve)

Ib: Wilderness area: managed mainly for wilderness protection

65
Q

IUCN Category II

A

National and Provincial Parks: managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation
Ecosystem and habitat protection

66
Q

IUCN Category III

A

National Monument: managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features (World Heritage Sites)

67
Q

IUCN Category IV

A

Habitat/species management areas: managed mainly for conservation through management intervention (Introduced species removal)

68
Q

IUCN Category V

A

Protected landscape/seascape: managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation (Orca Pass International Stewardship Area)

69
Q

IUCN Category VI

A

Managed resource protected area: managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems (Crown land)

70
Q

Major IUCN Concerns (6)

A 
Paper Parks
Design Shortcomings: position and size 
Internal Threats
External Threats
Transboundary Effects
Ineffective marine protection
71
Q

Paper Parks

A

Park names exist on maps but with no implementation or enforcement

72
Q

Design Shortcomings

A

Position of parks are chosen based on minimum political and industrial opposition and are ineffective to preserve biodiversity

The size of the parks are too small to preserve biodiversity due to the fragmentation effect

73
Q

Internal threats

A

Infringement, poaching, fires, disease, groundwater reduction, invasive species, highways

74
Q

External Threats

A

Outside the influence of management or control

headwater effects, dams, atmospheric, climate change, biocides, pathogens, invasive species

75
Q

Trans international boundaries

A

These create migration corridors

And make barriers for dispersal and migration

76
Q

Major Benefits of No-take zones (4)

A

Increased abundance of fish

The increased presence of larger fish with an exponential increase in reproductive output

Increased species diversity

Recovery of competitors, biodiversity and ecosystem processes

77
Q

Classification of levels of threat of extinction (4)

A

Safe: 0.1 probability of extinction (P) in 100 years (Y)
Vulnerable: 0.2 P in 20 Y
Endangered: 0.5 P in 10 Y
Critically Endangered: >0.5 P in 10 Y

78
Q

Approaches to conservation ecology (5)

A 
Studies of fragmented areas
Critical habitat approach 
Identifying biodiversity hotspots
Park design
Restoration ecology
79
Q

Critical habitat approach (3)

A 
Forest Age structure 
Nesting trees (snags)
Nutrient pulses (salmon runs)
80
Q

Park design (5)

A

Size and number (SLOSS debate)
Shape
Position
Corridors

81
Q

Restoration Ecology (4)

A

Identifying major issues in restoration

Reconstruction of degraded habitats to pre-disturbance state (removal of exotic species)

Augmentation of ecosystem processes (identify and supplement limiting resources and critical species interactions that facilitate recovery)

Sustainable development 
(the long-term persistence of human society and environmental processes through intelligent and ecological management)
82
Q

The tragedy of the Commons

A

Proposed by Garret Hardin
If the carrying capacity of a field is 100 cows (K=100 and N=100)
Each farmer gets 10 cows
If a farmer adds one more cow N=101 and K=99, this increases their income by 10%
If each farmer thinks the same way and adds one cow N=100 and K =~50 (overbrowsing)

83
Q

Possible fixes for global warming (8)

A

Carbon tax
Carbon credits
Hydroelectric - high eco. impact, low cost, few emissions
Nuclear power - fission and fusion
Photovoltaics - high potential, low risk, no emissions
WInd - high potential, low risk
Geothermal - high potential globally
New technofixes: solar-hydrogen economy, high potential, low risk

84
Q

Ecological options for the future (4)

A

Possible fixes for global warming
Reduction in human population numbers
A large expansion of terrestrial and marine protected areas (IUCN I and II)
Ecological role models, educators, leadership

85
Q

Projected Earths population in 2100 (3)

A

At 2011 growth rate: 18.5 billion
With 2 child families: 8.7 billion
With 1 child families: 1.4 billion

BIOL 215 (5 decks)

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