Midterm Exam Flashcards by John Paul Fernandez

The study of the relationship between organisms and their environment

Ecology

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Other terms for ecology

Bioecology
Bionomics
Environmental Biology

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Who coined the term ecology?

Ernst Haeckel

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What does oekologie mean?

Relation of the animal to its organic and inorganic environment

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Where does the word ecology come from?

Greek word oikos, meaning household, home, or place to live

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Who first described the interrelationships between organisms and their nonliving environment?

Theophrastus

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Who called attention to the conflict between expanding populations and food supply?

Thomas Malthus

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What is Malthusianism?

States that population growth will always tend to outrun food supply and that betterment of humankind is impossible without stern limits on reproduction

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They applied mathematical foundations for the study of populations and did experiments on the interactions of organisms

Raymond Pearl
Alfred Lotka
Vito Volterra

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Who is the father of biogerontology?

Raymond Pearl

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Who (2) developed the prey-predator model?

Alfred Lotka
Vito Volterra

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The study of the biological bases of ageing and age-related diseases

Biogerontology

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Who (2) developed the concept of animal behavior (ethology)?

Konrad Lorenz
Nikolaas Tinbergen

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When did Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen win a Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine?

1973

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Who conceptualized imprinting?

Konrad Lorenz

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It is the bond formed between a newborn animal and its caregiver

Imprinting

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Who studied group selection and the role of social behaviors in population regulation through epideictic displays?

Vero Wynne-Edwards

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It is natural selection at the level of groups

Group Selection

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Who introduced the concept of trophic levels and how energy is transferred from producers to consumers?

August Thienemann

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It is an organism’s number of steps from the start of the food chain

Trophic Level

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Who developed the food chain and food web concepts, the concept of ecological niches, and pyramids of numbers?

Charles Elton

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Who (2) measured the energy budget of lakes, developed the idea of primary productivity, and limnology?

Edward Birge
Chancey Juday

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It is the uptake of energy from the environment versus its use for various purposes

Energy Budget

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It is the study of inland aquatic ecosystems

Limnology

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Who developed the trophic-dynamic concept of ecology?

Raymond Lindeman

What is Lindeman's 10% Law?

States that only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to another

Who (2) quantified field studies of energy flow through ecosystems?

Eugene Odum Howard Odum

Who is the father of modern ecology?

Eugene Odum

Who defined ecology as "any unit that includes all of the organisms in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to exchanges of materials between living and nonliving parts of the system"?

Eugene Odum

Who studied the nutrient cycle?

J.D. Ovington

It is a system where energy and matter are transferred between living and nonliving components of the ecosystem

Nutrient Cycle

Enumerate the (8) ecological hierarchies

Individual Population Interactions Community Ecosystem Landscape Region Biosphere

It is the study of how individuals survive in their environment, especially in extreme conditions

Physiological Ecology

It is the study of factors that drive adaptations such as hunting and avoiding enemies

Behavioral Ecology

It is the study of environmental factors that drive species adaptations such as camouflage genes to avoid predators

Evolutionary Ecology

It is the study of a single species, also known as autecology

Population Ecology

It is the study of the evolutionary effects of interactions on population structure or on properties of ecological communities

Ecology of Interactions

It is the study of the subsets of organisms and what ecological factors determine how many species are present in an area, also known as synecology

Community Ecology

It is the study of large-scale ecological issues such as biomass, energy flow, and nutrient cycling

Ecosystem Ecology

It is the study of landscape structures and processes

Landscape Ecology

It is the study of factors and prevention of species extinction

Conservation Ecology

It is the study of factors and prevention of species extinction

Conservation Ecology

It is the study of the biosphere

Geographic Ecology

It is an interdisciplinary study of the ecology of the Earth's atmosphere boundary

Aeroecology

It is the study of urban areas as complex, dynamic ecological systems

Urban Ecology

What (4) causes the uneven heating of the Earth's surface?

Spherical shape 23.5 degrees tilt on its axis Latitudes Seasons

It is a period when the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun

Northern Summer

It is a period when the sun is directly overhead the tropic of Cancer

Northern Summer Solstice (June 21)

It is a period when the sun is directly overhead the tropic of Capricorn

Northern Winter Solstice (December 21)

It is a period when the northern hemisphere is tilted away from the sun

Northern Winter

Is it a period when both hemispheres receive equal amounts of solar radiation

Equinox

When is the spring equinox?

March 21

When is the autumnal equinox?

September 22 or 23

What are the 4 prevailing winds?

Northeast Trades Southeast Trades Westerlies Polar Easterlies

It is a phenomenon responsible for wind deflection and why prevailing winds do not move in a straight north-south direction

Coriolis Effect

It is the study of how organisms in a particular area are influenced by various factors

Natural History

It is an approach that seeks to preserve tropical dry forests for its own sake for for human benefits

Biocultural Restoration

It is distinguished primarily be its predominant plants and climate

Terrestrial Biome

It is one of the most significant aspects of soil structure, observed by digging a 1- to 3-meter soil pit

Vertical Layering

It is the topmost, superficial soil layer composed of fresh organic matter

O Horizon

It is a soil layer that contains a mixture of mineral materials and organic materials

A Horizon

It is a soil layer with a distinct color and banding pattern and occupied by most plant roots

B Horizon

It is the deepest soil layer consisting of weathered parent material

C Horizon

What are the 5 factors that influence soil structure?

Hans Jenny, 1980: - Climate - Organisms - Topography - Parent Material - Time

It is a term for geologic material from which soil horizons form

Parent Material

**Terrestrial Biome** -10 latitude - Warm and wet year-round - Average temperature of 25-27C - Annual rainfall of 2000-4000mm

Tropical Rain Forest

**Terrestrial Biome** - Nutrient leaching - Rapid decomposition, low organic matter - Nutrient-poor and acidic - Mycorrhizae

Tropical Rain Forest

**Terrestrial Biome** - Trees provide vertical dimension - Trees often supported by buttresses - Complex relationships between species

Tropical Rain Forest

It is a symbiotic relationship of fungi and tree roots

Mycorrhizae

**Terrestrial Biome** What are the 4 vertical dimensions of trees and their heights?

Undergrowth (5m) Understory (17m) Canopy (29m) Emergent Layer (38m)

**Terrestrial Biome** Human Influences - Source of staple foods - Source of 25% of all prescription drugs - Fast disappearing

Tropical Rain Forest

**Terrestrial Biome** Geography & Climate - 10-25 latitude - More seasonal - 6-7 months dry - 5-6 months rainfall

Tropical Dry Forest

**Terrestrial Biome** Soil - Of great age - Less acidic but vulnerable to erosion - Richer in nutrients

Tropical Dry Forest

**Terrestrial Biome** Biology - Plants strongly influenced by physical factors - Tree height correlated with precipitation - Seeds dispersed by wind and animals - Seasonal migrations of animals

Tropical Dry Forest

**Terrestrial Biome** Human Influences - Heavy settling - Agricultural developments - Decrease in biodiversity

Tropical Dry Forest

**Terrestrial Biome** Geography & Climate - 10-20 latitude - Alternating dry and wet seasons - Drought combines with fire - Rain combines with lightning

Tropical Savanna

**Terrestrial Biome** Soil - Low water permeability - Water retained near surface - Waterlogged during wet season

Tropical Savanna

**Terrestrial Biome** Biology - Occurs mostly near ground level - Fire-resistant flora - Wandering animals

Tropical Savanna

**Terrestrial Biome** Human Influences - First observations of fire - Hunting and gathering - Pastoralism and livestock ranching - Sahel: A region in Africa devastated by human populations, livestock, and drought

Tropical Savanna

**Terrestrial Biome** Geography & Climate - 30 latitude - 20% of Earth's landmass - Evaporation and transpiration exceeds precipitation - Drought conditions prevail

Desert

**Terrestrial Biome** Soil - Often considered *lithosols* due to low organic matter - Islands of fertility under shrubs - High salt content which increases aridity

Desert

**Terrestrial Biome** It is a term used for calcium carbonate-rich hardpan horizon

Caliche

**Terrestrial Biome** Biology - Little to no plants - Plants have dense hairs for protection - Small leaves - Dormant seeds - Low animal abundance, high diversity

Desert

**Terrestrial Biome** Human Influences - Concentrated near oases and river valleys - Salt accumulation - Increasing in area

Desert

**Terrestrial Biome** Geography & Climate - 30-40 latitude - Found in all continents but Antarctica - Cool and moist except in spring - Hot, dry summer - Possible mild frost

Mediterranean Woodland and Shrubland

**Terrestrial Biome** Another term for MW&S in Western North America

Chaparral

**Terrestrial Biome** Another term for MW&S in Spain

Matorral

**Terrestrial Biome** Another term for MW&S in Mediterranean Basin

Garrigue

**Terrestrial Biome** Another term for MW&S in South Africa

Fynbos

**Terrestrial Biome** Another term for MW&S in Australia

Mallee

**Terrestrial Biome** Soil - Low to moderate fertility and fragile - Severe soil erosion - Stripped due to fires and overgrazing

Mediterranean Woodland and Shrubland

**Terrestrial Biome** Biology - Highly diverse with adaptations to drought - Evergreen trees and shrubs rich in oil - Symbiotic microbes fix nitrogen from the air - Fire-resistant plants

Mediterranean Woodland and Shrubland

**Terrestrial Biome** Human Influences - Wheat plantations once every 5-6 years - Low-intensity cultivation and long-term stability - Deforestation and intentional fires - Human habitations

Mediterranean Woodland and Shrubland

**Terrestrial Biome** Geography & Climate - 30-55 latitude - Largest biome in N. America - 300-1000mm annual rainfall - Droughts may last several years - Cold winters, hot summers

Temperate Grasslands

**Terrestrial Biome** Another term for temperate grasslands in America

Prairie

**Terrestrial Biome** Another term for temperate grasslands in Eurasia

Steppe

**Terrestrial Biome** Soil - Wide variety of parent materials - Deep, basic, fertile, high organic matter

Temperate Grasslands

**Terrestrial Biome** Biology - Herbaceous vegetation - Plants limited near rivers and streams - Roving herbivores

Temperate Grasslands

**Terrestrial Biome** Human Influences - Nomadic hunters > nomadic herders > farmers - Most fertile farmlands on Earth - Lost 35-40% of organic matter

Temperate Grasslands

**Terrestrial Biome** Geography & Climate - 30-55 latitude, but mostly between 40-50 latitude - Annual rainfall of 50-3000mm - All seasons present

Temperate Forest

**Terrestrial Biome** Soil - Fertile - Deciduous forests very fertile - Coniferous forests can grow in poorer soils

Temperate Forest

**Terrestrial Biome** Biology - May be coniferous or deciduous - Vertically stratified - Fungi and bacteria the most important consumers

Temperate Forest

**Terrestrial Biome** What are the 4 vertical stratifications in temperate forests?

- Herb Layer - Shrub Layer - Shade-Tolerant Understory Trees - Canopy

**Terrestrial Biome** Human Influences - First concentrated along forest margins - Agricultural developments - Remaining 1-2% old-growth forests in Western N. America

Temperate Forest

**Terrestrial Biome** Geography & Climate - 50-65 latitude - Long winters, short summers - Annual rainfall of 200-600mm - Low evaporation, infrequent droughts

Boreal Forest

**Terrestrial Biome** Greek word for *north*

Boreal

**Terrestrial Biome** Soil - Low fertility, thin, acidic - Slow decomposition and soil building - Shallow tree roots with mycorrhizae - Thin topsoil, permafrost subsoil

Boreal Forest

**Terrestrial Biome** Biology - Evergreen conifers - Willows along rivers and lakes - Aspen in deciduous, birch in coniferous - Migratory mammals - Wolves the major predators - Epiphytes - Trees pollinated by wind

Boreal Forest

**Terrestrial Biome** Human Influences - Ancient cave paintings - Eurasia: Reindeer hunting turned to domestication - N. Canada & Alaska: Wild caribou as food - Light human intrusion

Boreal Forest

**Terrestrial Biome** Geography & Climate - 66.5 latitude - Cold and dry - Long winters, short summers - Annual rainfall of <200mm to >600mm - Precipitation exceeds evaporation

Tundra

**Terrestrial Biome** Soil - Slow decomposition and soil building - Freezing and thawing of soil - Solifluction

Tundra

**Terrestrial Biome** It is the downslope movement of soil

Solifluction

**Terrestrial Biome** Biology - Large native mammals

Tundra

**Terrestrial Biome** Human Influences - Limited to small groups - One of the last pristine areas of Earth - Increase in human intrusion - Increased oil exploration and extraction - Radiation fallout

Tundra

**Aquatic Environments** What are the 3 major oceans?

Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean

**Aquatic Environments** What is the deepest point of the ocean?

Challenger Deep 11035 meters

**Aquatic Environments** What are the 3 horizontal zones of the ocean?

Littoral Zone Neritic Zone Oceanic Zone

**Aquatic Environments** What are the 5 vertical zones of the ocean?

Epipelagic Zone Mesopelagic Zone Bathypelagic Zone Abyssopelagic Zone Hadalpelagic Zone

**Aquatic Environments** What are the 3 zones of the ocean according to light availability?

Euphotic Zone Dysphotic Zone Aphotic Zone

**Aquatic Environments** It is a term for the temperature profile of the ocean where temperature decreases with depth

Thermocline

**Aquatic Environments** It occurs when warm and cold waters mix through currents, winds, and tides

Thermal Stratification

**Aquatic Environments** It occurs when winds displace surface water, bringing cool water from the deep to the surface

Upwelling

**Aquatic Environments** It is a rotating oceanic current

Gyre

**Aquatic Environments** How many phyla and endemic phyla are in the ocean?

28 phyla 13 endemic

**Aquatic Environments** Found in temperate regions in shallow waters

Kelp Forests

**Aquatic Environments** What are the 4 basic structures of kelp?

Blade Air Bladder Stipe Holdfast

**Aquatic Environments** What are the 5 structures of a kelp forest

Encrusting Understory Water Column Epiphytes Canopy

**Aquatic Environments** Grows ideally in less than 10C

Kelp Forests

**Aquatic Environments** Found in tropical regions in shallow waters

Coral Gardens

**Aquatic Environments** What are the 3 categories of reefs?

Charles Darwin: - Fringing - Barrier - Atoll

**Aquatic Environments** What are the 3 structural habitats of reefs?

Reef Flat Zone Reef Crest Buttress Zone

**Aquatic Environments** Grows ideally in 18C-20C

Coral Gardens

**Aquatic Environments** Crown of Thorns Coral predators

*Acanthaster planci*

**Aquatic Environments** Sea urchin Coral predators

*Diadema antillarum*

**Aquatic Environments** Algae with relationship with corals, giving it a green color, and an indicator of good health

Zooxanthellae

**Aquatic Environments** This occurs to corals due to high temperature and salinity

Coral Bleaching

**Aquatic Environments** May be exposed, sheltered, rocky, or sandy

Marine Shores

**Aquatic Environments** What are the 5 vertical zones of marine shores?

Splash Zone Upper Intertidal Zone Middle Intertidal Zone Lower Intertidal Zone Subtidal Zone

**Aquatic Environments** It is a tide that occurs when the sun and moon are aligned in a straight line

Spring Tide

**Aquatic Environments** It is a tide that occurs when the sun and moon are aligned perpendicularly

Neap Tide

**Aquatic Environments** It is a tide with one low and one high tide per day

Diurnal Tide

**Aquatic Environments** It is a tide with two low and two high tides per day

Semidiurnal Tide

**Aquatic Environments** What are the organisms found in marine shores zonation of species?

Splash Zone: Attached to stones Intertidal Zone: Anemones, shellfish Subtidal Zone: Kelp, seaweed, sea grass

**Aquatic Environments** Transitional environments where rivers or streams meet the ocean

Estuaries

**Aquatic Environments** Transitional environments constantly flood and drained by saltwater

Salt Marshes

**Aquatic Environments** What are the 7 structures of salt marshes?

Tidal Creek Levee Low Marsh High Marsh Marsh Border Transitional Communities Maritime Climax Forest

**Aquatic Environments** Transitional environments with trees that can tolerate saltwater

Mangrove Forests

**Aquatic Environments** Transitional environments along boundaries of freshwater sources

Freshwater Wetlands

**Aquatic Environments** It is the area where all river networks drain

River Basin

**Aquatic Environments** Is is a high point that separate river basins

Watershed

**Aquatic Environments** It is a river/stream structure that transitions to land

Riparian Zone

**Aquatic Environments** What are the 4 vertical zones of rivers and streams?

Water Table River Channel Hyporheic Zone Groundwater

**Aquatic Environments** What are the 5 lakes in the Great Lakes?

Superior Michigan Huron Erie Ontario

**Aquatic Environments** What is the deepest lake in the world?

Lake Baikal 1600 meters

**Aquatic Environments** What is the second deepest lake in the world?

Lake Tanganyika 1470 meters

**Aquatic Environments** It is a term for a concentration of lakes

Lake District

**Aquatic Environments** What are the 2 horizontal zones of lakes?

Littoral Zone Limnetic Zone

**Aquatic Environments** What are the 3 vertical zones of lakes?

Epilimnion Metalimnion Hypolimnion

**Aquatic Environments** A lake color with high nutrients and primary production, often shallow

Deep Green

**Aquatic Environments** A lake color with acidic water caused by leaching of forest soils

Yellow Brown

**Aquatic Environments** A lake color with low nutrients and bio activities, often deep

Blue

**Aquatic Environments** A young lake with little no landfill, low bio production, and high oxygen

Oligotrophic

**Aquatic Environments** A middle-aged lake with moderate landfill, moderate bio production, and decent oxygen

Mesotrophic

**Aquatic Environments** An old lake with significant landfill, high bio production, and low oxygen

Eutrophic

**Aquatic Environments** It occurs due to bio activity being inversely correlated to oxygen content

Eutrophication

It is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a mass of a substance

Temperature

It is the kinetic energy in a mass of a substance

Heat

It is the climatic condition of a large scale area, usually represented by climate diagrams

Macroclimate

It is the climatic variation on a small scale area

Microclimate

What are the 5 factors that affect microclimate?

Altitude Aspect Vegetation Ground Color Boulders & Burrows

It is the short-term physiological adjustment that is reversible with change in environmental conditions

Acclimation

An example of organism with a great capacity to acclimate to high temperatures

*Atriplex lentiformis*

Organisms that thrive in high temperatures as high as 80C and above; give example

Thermophiles *Sulfolobus*

Organisms that do not regulate their own body temperature but instead rely directly on environmental temperature

Poikilotherms

Organisms that rely mostly on external sources of energy for temperature regulation

Ectotherms

Organisms that heavily rely on internally derived metabolic heat energy for temperature regulation

Endotherms

Organisms that use metabolic energy to maintain a relatively constant body temperature

Homeotherms

How do desert plants avoid heating?

- Decrease heating by conduction - Increase rates of convective cooling - Reduce rates of radiative heating

A desert plant that has leaf hairs and can cool its leaves to survive in high temperature environments

*Encelia farinosa*

How do arctic and alpine plants regulate temperature?

- Increase rates of radiative heating - Decrease rates of convective cooling

An arctic plant that can increase rates of radiative heating

*Dryas integrifolia*

An ectothermic animal that basks in the sun to warm its body or seeks shade to cool down

*Sceloporus undulatus*

An ectothermic animal that orients its body perpendicular to the sun's rays to heat itself up

*Camnula pellucida*

It is the range of environmental temperature at which the metabolic rate of a homeothermic animal does not change

Thermal Neutral Zone

How much can water absorb heat energy without changing temperature as compared to air?

3000 times

How much can water cause conductive and convective heat loss in still water and moving water?

20 times 100 times

These are vascular structures that reduce the rate of heat loss to the surrounding environment

Countercurrent Heat Exchangers

A flying insect with warming flight muscles

*Manduca sexta*

A thermogenic plant that can produce its own internal heat while its flowers enclose around itself to conserve heat

*Symplocarpus foetidus*

An animal that stays still and stands as tall as it can to avoid heating up on hot surfaces

*Neocicindela perhispida campbelli*

It is a state of low metabolic rate and lowered body temperature

Torpor

An example of an animal that hibernates

*Cheirogaleus medius*

It is the capacity of water to do work

Water Potential

It is a consequence of water's tendency to adhere to the walls of containers

Matric Forces

An animal that digs canals downslope to direct water to itself

*Lepidochora*

An animal that stands in a bent position to direct moisture to its mouth

*Onymacris unguicularis*

An animal that utilizes metabolic water from the breakdown of food

*Dipodomys*

A plant with deep roots for acquiring more water

*Artemisia frigida*

A plant with stolon for water acquisition

*Digitaria adscendens*

A plant that wilts to conserve water

*Piper auritum*

It is a way for sharks and some animals to excrete excess salts

Salt Gland

What is the composition of shark blood?

33% inorganic ions 67% urea and TMAO

How do marine bony fish regulate water?

- Drinks ample water - Excretes ions through gills - Loses water through skin - Excretes concentrated urine

How do marine bony fish eliminate excess salts?

- Chloride cells that secrete salts directly to the surrounding water - Kidneys

How do freshwater bony fish regulate water?

- Drinks little water - Actively takes up ions through gills - Absorbs water through skin - Excretes dilute urine

How do freshwater bony fish replace salts?

- Chloride cells that absorb salts from the surrounding water - Eating

These are the raw materials an organism must acquire from the environment to live

Nutrients

Organisms that utilize carbon dioxide and light to synthesize organic compounds

Photosynthetic Autotrophs

Organisms that utilize carbon dioxide and inorganic chemicals as their source of energy

Chemosynthetic Autotrophs

Organisms that utilize organic molecules as their source of carbon and energy

Heterotrophs

What are the 2 types of sulfur oxidizers living near geothermal vents?

- Free-living - Living within invertebrate tissues

It is the most common alternative photosynthetic pathway

What is produced in C3 photosynthesis?

Phosphoglyceric Acid

It separates carbon fixation and the Calvin Cycle in different cells

What is produced in C4 photosynthesis?

Oxaloacetate

It is common in succulent plants in arid environments and among epiphytes in forest canopies

CAM

It separates carbon fixation and the Calvin Cycle in different times of the day

CAM

What are 2 problems in nutrition among herbivores?

- Must compensate for large differences in nutrient content of food and the requirements for growth and metabolism - Must overcome physical and chemical defenses of plants

What do carnivores do to select their prey according to size?

Size-Selective Predation

These are the decomposers of the environment

Detritivores

What are the 3 physical defenses of plants against herbivores?

Thorns Abrasive Silica Toughened Tissues

What are the 2 chemical defenses of plants against herbivores?

Toxins Digestion-reducing substances

What are the 6 animal defenses against predators?

Camouflage Anatomical Defenses Behavioral Defenses Aposematic Colors Mullerian Mimicry Batesian Mimicry

An animal that is white and easily spotted by predatory birds

*Biston betularia typica*

An animal that is black and blends with dark tree barks, hiding against predatory birds

*Biston betularia carbonaria*

It is a form of mimicry among noxious species wherein they copy each other

Mullerian Mimicry

It is a form of mimicry among harmless species wherein they copy noxious organisms

Batesian Mimicry

The study of social relations

Sociobiology

It is the number of offspring or genes contributed by an individual to future generations

Fitness

It is a concept proposing that an individual's overall fitness is determined by its relatives' and its own survival and reproduction

Inclusive Fitness

Organisms with both male and female functions

Hermaphrodites

An example of a plant that may possess male, female, or both sex organs

*Carica papaya*

These are characteristics not directly involved in the process of reproduction

Secondary Sexual Characteristics

It is a process that results from differences in reproductive rates among individuals as a result of differences in their mating success

Sexual Selection

Sexual selection wherein individuals of one sex compete among themselves for a mate

Intrasexual Selection

Sexual selection wherein individuals of one sex choose mates among members of the opposite sex on the basis of some particular trait

Intersexual Selection

An example of birds that show intersexual selection

*Paradisaeidae*

An example of animal that shows intersexual selection based on its ability to provide resources to its mate

*Panorpa*

It is a condition where plants cannot self-pollinate

Self-Incompatibility

It involves exchanges of resources between individuals or various forms of assistance

Cooperation

This begins with group living and cooperation

Sociality

It is the evolutionary force favoring helping relatives

Kin Selection

It is the place from which an organism is raised

Natal Territory

An example of birds that show philopatry

Green woodhoopoes

It is the total number of offspring produced over the course of a lifetime

Lifetime Reproductive Success

It is a highly complex, stratified social behavior

Eusociality

What are the 3 indications of eusociality?

- Individuals on more than one generation living together - Cooperative care of the young - Division of individuals into castes

2 examples of animals that exhibit castes

*Atta sexdens* *Heterocephalus glaber*

What are the 4 mangrove species in increasing order of their exposure to brackish water

*Conocarpus erectus* *Avicennia germinans* *Laguncularia racemosa* *Rhizophora mangle*

Midterm Exam Flashcards

(249 cards)