Module 2C: Neuroanatomy Of The Digestive System

Question 1

Recall that Σ and РΣ function as unconscious motor neurons, all are classified
as ___ neurons / axons.

Answer 1

GVE

Question 2

There are the two autonomic motor system neurons required from the spinal
cord / brainstem to the effector:

Answer 2

these are called the pre- and post-ganglionic
neurons.

Question 3

The Σ system has an endocrine homologue in the _________ ________, the РΣ system does not.

Answer 3

adrenal medulla

Question 4

Adrenal medulla releases?

Answer 4

Epinephrine

Question 5

Sympathetic Functions

Answer 5

-reactions to stress
-Increased heart function; bronchodilation, decreased mucous secretion; decreased digestive function (decreased peristalsis, constriction of sphincters; pupillary dilation; vasodilation in vessels of skeletal muscle, vasoconstriction in other vessels; allows bladder filling; ejaculation

Question 6

Parasympathetic Functions

Answer 6

-recovery of rest, vegetative functions
-Decreased heart function; bronchoconstriction and increased mucous secretion; increased digestion (increased peristalsis, glandular secretion, opening of sphincters); pupillary constriction, specific vasodilation in salivary glands, GI vessels, and erectile tissues; managing bowel and bladder emptying

Question 7

Innervation of the Abdominopelvic Viscera: General Information

Sympathetic Preganglionic Origins

Answer 7

Intermediolateral Nucleus (IML) T6-L2

Question 8

Parasympathetic Preganglionic Origins:

Answer 8

Dorsal Motor Nucleus of X (DMX) to
the transverse colon, distal to that: Sacral Parasympathetic Nucleus (SPN) of S2
-4.

Question 9

The preganglionic sympathetic synapse is NOT in the chain, but in the pre-
_________ _______associated with the abdominal aorta . These prevertebral
ganglia have names (see the next page)

Answer 9

Vertebral ganglia

Question 10

The _____________ parasympathetic cell bodies are IN the organ (intramural)

Answer 10

Postganglionic

Question 11

Innervation of the Abdominopelvic Viscera: Splanchnic Nerves and Prevertebral Ganglia
• Sympathetic Splanchnic Nerves

Answer 11

• Greater splanchnic nerve: T6-9 —> celiac ganglion
• Lesser splanchnic nerve: T10-11 —> superior mesenteric ganglion
• Least splanchnic nerve: T12 —> inferior mesenteric ganglion
• Lumbar splanchnic nerves: L1-2 —> inferior hypogastric ganglion
• Sacral splanchnic nerves: L1-2 —> inferior hypogastric ganglion

Question 12

Innervation of the Lower Gut, Bladder
• Parasympathetic Splanchnic Nerves

Answer 12

• Pelvic splanchnic nerve: S2-4  pelvic ganglion l (aka
inferior hypogastric ganglion) • The Vagus nerve innervation ends at the transverse
colon… the descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum,
bladder and reproductive organs receive their
parasympathetic input from the sacral cord… the SPN S2-
4 from which are derived the PELVIC splanchnic nerves.

Question 13

Autonomic Function in the Abdominopelvic Cavity
Sympathetic input slows or stops digestion and digestive activity

Answer 13

• Inhibitory to glandular secretion and peristalsis: NE, beta-2 (β-2)
• Excitatory to sphincter activity: NE, Alpha-1 (α-1)
• Vasoconstrictive to redirect blood to the brain, heart, and extremities: NE

Question 14

Autonomic Function in the Abdominopelvic Cavity

Parasympathetic input enhances and supports digestion

Answer 14

• Excitatory to glandular secretion and peristalsis: ACh, M1/3 +
• Inhibitory to sphincter activity: Ach, M3 -
• As usual, there is little ƤƩ effect on vascular smooth muscle

Question 15

Innervation of the stomach

Sympathetic pathway

Pre gel CB origin:
Pre ggl path:
Post ggl CB origin:
Post ggl path:

Answer 15

Preganglionic CB Origin: T6-T9

Preganglionic Path: Enter white rami—> THROUGH sympathetic chain to become the Greater splanchnic nerve

Postganglionic CB Origin: Celiac Pleus and Ganglion

Postganglionic Path: 1. Left gastric plexus
2. Splenic plexus to short gastric plexus
3. Splenic plexus to left gastroepiplioc plexus
4. Common hepatic to gfastroduodenal to right gastroepiplic plexus
5. Common hepatic to proper hepatic to right gastric plexus —> sympathetic GI function

Question 16

Innervation of the stomach

Parasympathetic pathway:

Pre ggl CB origin:
Pre ggl path:
Post ggl CB origin:
Post ggl path:

Answer 16

Preganglionic CB origin: dorsal motor nucleus X

Preganglionic path: CN X through the jugular foramen —> thoracic outlet —> vagal branches through the esophageal hiatus —> celiac plexus and ganglion —> to follow the postganglionic sympathetic paths

Postganglionic CB origin: intramural ganglia: Auerbach’s and Meissner’s

Postganglionic Path: direct to parasympathetic GI function

Question 17

_______ provides direct input to the spleen

Answer 17

Sympathetic

Question 18

You recall that the high threshold GVAs follow the __________ pathway, and the low threshold GVAs follow the _____________ pathway.

Answer 18

Sympathetic

Parasympathetic

Question 19

Which of these axon types is found in the Celiac Ganglion and Plexus? CHOOSE ALL THAT APPLY!!

A. postganglionic parasympathetic

B. low threshold GVA

C.preganglionic parasympathetic

D.high threshold GVA

E. postganglionic sympathetic

Answer 19

B, c, d, e,

Question 20

Which of these plexuses DOES NOT transmit postganglionic sympathetic axons to the stomach?

splenic

left gastric

right hepatic

right gastroepiploic

Answer 20

Right hepatic

Question 21

All pre- to postganglionic GVE synapses use ____ that binds ____ receptors to produce fEPSP on the postganglionic cell.

A. EPI, Beta-2

B. ACh, M1

C. ACh, nicotinic cholinergic

D. NE, Beta-1

Answer 21

C

Question 22

The parasympathetic function on sphincteric smooth muscle is via _____ binding ____ receptors.

A. ACh, M3

B. NE, alpha-1

C. ACh, M1

D. NE, beta-2

Answer 22

A

Question 23

According to the current literature, how do parasympathetic axons influence the functioning of the spleen?

A. directly in the spleen, using ACh at M1 receptors

B. indirectly, synapsing on postganglionic sympathetic cells in the ganglia

C. they don’t influence the functioning of the spleen in any way.

D. directly in the spleen, using ACh at M3 receptors

Answer 23

B

Question 24

Which one of these cell body types is found in the Celiac Ganglion?

A. low threshold GVA

B. postganglionic parasympathetic

C. preganglionic parasympathetic

D. high threshold GVA

E. postganglionic sympathetic

Answer 24

E

Question 25

Axons carried by the Greater Splanchnic nerve include _______ CHOOSE TWO!! A.preganglionic sympathetic GVE B.low threshold GVA C.preganglionic parasympathetic GVE D.high threshold GVA

Answer 25

A, D

Question 26

Axons transmitted by the gastroduodenal plexus include: both of these postganglionic sympathetic none of these preganglionic sympathetic

Answer 26

Postganglionic sympathetic

Question 27

The left gastroepiploic plexus is a branch of the: common hepatic right gastric gastroduodenal splenic

Answer 27

Splenic

Question 28

Sympathetic input to the blood vessels of the gut most often cause _______ via NE at Alpha-1 receptors. vasoconstriction vasodilation

Answer 28

Vasoconstriction

Question 29

Sympathetic postganglionic axon terminals release ____ that binds ____ receptors at sphincteric smooth muscle. EPI, beta-1 NE, beta-2 ACh, M1 ACh, M3

Answer 29

NE, beta-2

Question 30

Parasympathetic axon terminals release ____ that binds ____ receptors at gastric glands of the stomach: NE, Beta-1 EPI, Beta-2 ACh, M1 ACh, nicotinic cholinergic

Answer 30

ACh, M1

Question 31

Innervation of the liver and gallbladder Sympathetic pathway Preganglionic CB origin: Preganglionic path: Postganglionic CB origin: Postganglionic path:

Answer 31

Preganglionic CB Origin: T6-T9 Preganglionic path: enter white rami—> THORUGH sympathetic chain to become the greater splanchnic nerve Postganglionic CB origin: celiac plexus and ganglion (preganglionic paraysympathetic axons of C pass through) Postganglionic path: 1. Common hepatic to proper hepatic to right and left hepatic plexuses 2. Common hepatic to proper hepatic to right hepatic to cystic pleus —> sympathetic GI function

Question 32

Innervation of the liver and gallbladder Parasympathetic pathway Preganglionic CB origin: Preganglionic path: Postganglionic CB origin: Postganglionic path:

Answer 32

Preganglionic CB origin: Dorsal Motor nucleus X Preganglionic path: CN X through the Jugular Foramen —> thoracic outlet —> vagal branches through the esophageal hiatus —> celiac plexus and ganglion —> follow the past ggl sympathetic paths Postganglionic CB origin: Intramural ganglia: Auerbach’s and Meissner’s Postganglionic path: Direct to parasympathetic GI function

Question 33

GLP-1 Actions **SLIDE 29

Answer 33

most of the GLP-1 action on the liver has to do with CNS inhibition of appetite centers and increased awareness of satiety via Vagal afferent action / inaction … these GVAs will also eventually cause the Vagus nerve to fire causing decreased gluconeogenesis, decreased insulin resistance, and decreased liver fat (all + parasympathetic effects). GLP-1s also affect a wide variety of organs (mainly through PE effects)… like decreased liver fat, increased insulin release and decrease glucagon production.

Question 34

Endocrine Influences on Gallbladder Function

Answer 34

Gallbladder release of bile is caused by intramural parasympathetic postganglionic ACh at M1 receptors, and sphincter release is caused by ACh at M3 which cause the release of nitric oxide (which is inhibitory to smooth muscle contraction). VIP is co- released with ACh and is also inhibitory to sphincteric contraction. The act of eating and the presence of food in the gut causes the release of CCK , which acts to initiate gallbladder contraction (especially if the foods are fatty) and has a positive feedback to the DMX via low threshold chemoreceptors in the duodenal wall.

Question 35

parasympathetic functions of these organs (liver/gallbladder) are subject to and modified by endocrine control, especially the actions of _____ (cholecystokinin)

Answer 35

CCK

Question 36

Parasympathetic GVAs receive information about low blood glucose and lead to ___________. A. decreased storage of glycogen B. decreased digestive activity C. increased appetite D. increased feelings of fullness

Answer 36

C

Question 37

The cystic plexus is a branch of the: left hepatic right gastric gastroepiploic right hepatic

Answer 37

Right hepatic

Question 38

Which of these axon types are found in the Celiac Ganglion and Plexus? CHOOSE ALL THAT APPLY!! A. high threshold GVA B. low threshold GVA C. postganglionic parasympathetic D. preganglionic parasympathetic E. postganglionic sympathetic

Answer 38

A, B, D, E

Question 39

Sympathetic function on the liver includes ___________. A.increasing gluconeogenesis B.increasing glycogen storage C.vasodilation D.increasing liver fat

Answer 39

A

Question 40

Which of these plexuses transmit postganglionic sympathetic axons to the liver? left gastric proper hepatic greater splanchnic Vagus

Answer 40

Proper hepatic

Question 41

Axons transmitted by the Common Hepatic Plexus include _______ CHOOSE TWO!! A. postganglionic sympathetic GVE B. high threshold GVA C. preganglionic sympathetic D. postganglionic parasympathetic GVE

Answer 41

A, B

Question 42

Axons transmitted by the cystic plexus include: A. both of these B. postganglionic sympathetic C. preganglionic sympathetic

Answer 42

B

Question 43

Which of these axons are transmitted by the Greater Splanchnic Nerve? CHOOSE TWO!! Selected Answer, preganglionic sympathetic A. high threshold GVA B. postganglionic sympathetic C. preganglionic parasympathetic D. low threshold GVA

Answer 43

A and B

Question 44

Innervation of the Durodenum, pancreas Sympathetic pathway: Preganglionic CB origin: Preganglionic path: Postganglionic CB origin: Postganglionic path:

Answer 44

Preganglionic CB origin: T6-T9 IML *T10, 11 Preganglionic path: Enter White Rami—> THROUGH sympathetic chain to become to greater splanchnic nerve *As above to become the lesser splanchnic nerve Postganglionic CB origin:Celiac plexus and ganglion (preganglionic parasympathetic axons of C pass through) *Superior Mesenteric Plexus and Ganglion (preganglionic parasympathetic axons of C pass through) Postganglionic path: 1. Common hepatic to gastroduodenal to superior anterior and posterior pancreaticoduodenal plexuses 2. Splenic plexus to pancreatic branches plexuses —> sympathetic GI function *1. Superior mesenteric plexus to the inferior anterior and posterior pancreatiocoduodenal plexuses 0-0> Sympathetic GI function

Question 45

Innervation of the Durodenum, pancreas Parasympathetic pathway: Preganglionic CB origin: Preganglionic path: Postganglionic CB origin: Postganglionic path:

Answer 45

Preganglionic CB origin: Dorsal motor nucleus X Preganglionic path: CN X through the jugular foramen —> thoracic outlet —> vagal branches through the esophageal hiatus —> Celiac plexus and ganglion —> follow the postggl sympathetic paths Postganglionic Postganglionic CB origin:intramural ganglia: Auerbach’s and Meissner’s (enteric nervous system) Postganglionic path: Derect to parasympathetic GI function

Question 46

Summary of the effects of pancreatic innervation on islet function

Answer 46

Pancreatic sympathetic efferent activation during hypoglycaemia or the fight/flight response in creases glucagon secretion and blood glucose. Pancreatic parasympathetic efferent nerve activation during the cephalic pre—absorptive phase of insulin secretion lowers blood glucose Pancreatic sensory innervation can be divided into spinal Afferent and vagal Afferent innervation and may increase blood glucose Enters pancreatic innervation is understudied but may modulate pancreatic hormone release

Question 47

Regarding the innervation of the duodenum and pancreas the vascular perfusion originates from both the _____ ______ _______ _______ ______, the postganglionic sympathetic axons arise from both ganglia as well.

Answer 47

celiac and superior mesenteric trunks

Question 48

You have learned that the ANS functions and __________ controls for the pancreas are linked, and multiple organ systems regulate carbohydrate and lipid metabolism

Answer 48

Endocrine

Question 49

The _______ pancreas is mainly controlled by traditional excitatory parasympathetic pathways associated with promoting digestion.

Answer 49

Exocrine

Question 50

Which of these Spinal Nerve pairs make up the Lesser Splanchnic nerve? T10-11 T4-5 T6-7 L1-2

Answer 50

T10-11

Question 51

Sympathetic function on the pancreas includes ___________. increasing release of glucagon increasing glycogen storage increasing liver fat vasodilation

Answer 51

Increasing real ease of glucagon

Question 52

Axons transmitted by the inferior anterior pancreaticoduodenal plexus include: none of these both of these preganglionic parasympathetic postganglionic parasympathetic

Answer 52

Preganglionic parasympathetic

Question 53

The gastroduodenal plexus is a branch of the: right gastric left hepatic common hepatic gastroepiploic

Answer 53

Common hepatic

Question 54

Which of these axons are transmitted by the Lesser Splanchnic Nerve? CHOOSE TWO!! A.postganglionic sympathetic B.preganglionic sympathetic C.high threshold GVA D. low threshold GVA E. preganglionic parasympathetic

Answer 54

B and C

Question 55

Parasympathetic function on the gallbladder is ___________. A.vasodilation B.inhibition of CCK activity C.decreased contraction, relaxing of the gallbladder D.increased contraction leading to bile emptying into the duodenum

Answer 55

D

Question 56

Axons transmitted by the Gastroduodenal plexus include _______ CHOOSE TWO!! A.preganglionic sympathetic B.high threshold GVA C.postganglionic sympathetic GVE D.postganglionic parasympathetic GVE

Answer 56

B and C

Question 57

Which of these axon types are found in the Superior Mesenteric Ganglion and Plexus? CHOOSE ALL THAT APPLY!! A. low threshold GVA B.postganglionic parasympathetic C.postganglionic sympathetic D.high threshold GVA E.preganglionic parasympathetic

Answer 57

A, C, D, E

Question 58

Innervation of the Small Intestine

Answer 58

As with the other parts of the GI tract, the innervation follows the main vascular perfusion patterns. An additional piece we will discuss in this unit is the Enteric Nervous System. This is a separate nervous system innervating the GI tract, regulating everything from tubular and sphincteric muscle contraction to digestive enzyme and mucous secretion. While it is influenced by the ANS, it can function perfectly well without it…

Question 59

Innervation of the Large Intestine

Answer 59

Like the rest of the GI tract… the control of these organs is both intrinsic (enteric nervous system) and extrinsic (autonomic systems). We haven’t talked about the enteric system specifically yet… but this is a small enough unit to get into it now! Hopefully the ANS patterns are making enough sense to you, such that we can add this new concept!

Question 60

Innervation of the Mid-Gut

Answer 60

The mid-gut includes all those portions of the gut receiving blood supply from the superior mesenteric artery . The upper gut, then, includes all those portions of the gut receiving their blood supply from the celiac trunk. The sympathetic postganglionic axons, then will arise largely in the superior mesenteric ganglion. The parasympathetic innervation continues to arise from the dorsal motor nucleus of X

Question 61

Innervation of the Mid-Gut Sympathetic pathway Preganglionic CB origin: Preganglionic path: Postganglionic CB origin: Postganglionic path

Answer 61

Preganglionic CB origin: T10-11 IML Preganglionic path: Enter white rami —> THOUGH sympathetic chain to become the lesser splanchnic nerve activation Postganglionic CB origin: superior mesenteric plexus and ganglion (preganglionic parasympathetic axons of X pass through) Postganglionic path: 1. Superior mesenteric to jejunal, ideal, and decal branches 2. Right colic branches (ascending cooon) and 3. Middle colic branches (transverse colon —> sympathetic GI Function

Question 62

Innervation of the Mid-Gut Parasympathetic pathway Preganglionic CB origin: Preganglionic path: Postganglionic CB origin: Postganglionic path

Answer 62

Preganglionic CB origin: Dorsal Motor Nucleus X Preganglionic path: CN X through the jugular foramen —> thoracic outlet —> vagal branches through the esophageal hiatus —> superior mesenteric ganglion—> follow the postggl sympathetic paths Postganglionic CB origin: Intramural ganglia; Auerbach’s and Meissner’s Postganglionic path: direct to parasympathetic GI function

Question 63

Which of these ganglia supply the innervation of all of the mid-gut? pelvic inferior mesenteric superior mesenteric celiac

Answer 63

Superior mesenteric

Question 64

Axons transmitted by the transverse colic plexus include _______ CHOOSE TWO!! A. preganglionic sympathetic B. postganglionic sympathetic GVE C. high threshold GVA D. postganglionic parasympathetic GVE

Answer 64

B and C

Question 65

The enteric nervous system is capable of controlling all digestive function and as well all defensive functions of the gut. True False

Answer 65

T

Question 66

Which of these axon types are found in the Superior Mesenteric Ganglion and Plexus? CHOOSE ALL THAT APPLY!! A. preganglionic parasympathetic B. high threshold GVA C. postganglionic sympathetic D. postganglionic parasympathetic E. low threshold GVA

Answer 66

A, B, C, E

Question 67

Which of these axons are transmitted by the Lesser Splanchnic Nerve? CHOOSE TWO!! A. preganglionic sympathetic B. low threshold GVA C. high threshold GVA D. postganglionic sympathetic

Answer 67

A, C

Question 68

The ascending colon is innervated by the ____ plexus. left colic splenic right colic gastroepiploic

Answer 68

Right colic

Question 69

Axons transmitted by the cecal plexus include: A.preganglionic parasympathetic B.both of these C. postganglionic parasympathetic D. none of these

Answer 69

A

Question 70

The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems act to regulate the digestive functioning of the enteric nervous system. True False

Answer 70

True

Question 71

Innervation of the Distal Large Intestine and Pelvic Viscera

Answer 71

As with the other parts of the GI tract, the innervation follows the main vascular perfusion patterns. The sympathetic innervation will arise from T12- L2 and be carried to the inferior mesenteric ganglion via the least splanchnic nerve and to the inferior hypogastric ganglion via the lumbar and sacral splanchnic nerves. Here, we will finally leave the Vagus Nerve behind… The parasympathetics will instead arise from the sacral parasympathetic nucleus in the lateral horn of S2-4. They will reach the postganglionic parasympathetics by forming the pelvic splanchnic nerves and synapsing either on postganglionic neurons in the organ or in the pelvic ganglion (aka the inferior hypogastric ganglion)

Question 72

Innervation of the Gastrointestinal Organs Sympathetic Paths Preganglionic CB origin: Preganglionic path: Postganglionic CB origin: Postganglionic path

Answer 72

Preganglionic CB origin: T12-L2 IML Preganglionic path: Ventral root, white rami —> through the SCG to become the least (to the IMG), Lumbar, and Sacral (to the inferior hypogastric ganglion) splanchnic nerves Postganglionic CB origin: Inferior mesenteric plexus and ganglion (is is unclear whether there are PE preganglionic axons in this plexus Inferior hypogastric plexus and ganglion (preganglionic parasympathetic axons from the pelvic splanchnic nerves pass through here AND synapse here on Postganglionic parasympathetic cells) Postganglionic path: From the IMG: 1. Left colic plexus 2. Sigmoid plexus 3. Superior Rectal Plexus (there are likely preganglionic parasympathetic axons in these plexuses that ascended via the inferior hypogastric plexus) From the inferior hypogastric plexus and ganglion: branches to the middle and inferior rectal plexuses and the rest of the pelvic viscera… to the GI, urinary, and reproductive organ effectors

Question 73

Innervation of the Distal Large Intestine and Pelvic Viscera Parasympathetic pathway Preganglionic CB origin: Preganglionic path: Postganglionic CB origin: Postganglionic path

Answer 73

Preganglionic CB origin: SPN (sacral parasympathetic nucleus) of S2-4 Preganglionic path: Pelvic splanchnic nerves —> pelvis/inferior hypogastric plexus follow the vascular paths to the organ Postganglionic CB origin:Intramural ganglia: Auerbach’s (my enteric) and Meissner’s (submuscosal) plexuses and ganglia; or the various intramural ganglia of the pelvic viscera… alternatively, the postganglionic neurons could be in the pelvic ganglion… Postganglionic path: either directly to the smooth muscle and glands… or Those from the pelvic ganglion/ inferior hypogastric ganglion will follow the vasculature to the organ

Question 74

Vagus nerve completes its innervation at the _________ ________ of the transverse colon, and from there, the Parasympathetic input to the gut comes from the SPN of S2-4

Answer 74

splenic flexure

Question 75

From the pelvic plexus and ganglion, the preganglionic parasympathetic axons travel on the various blood vessels to the wall of the distal colon where they will synapse on ____________ ___________cells as they have throughout the intestine. These will interact with the ________ innervation leading to movements of the large bowel in preparation for defecation

Answer 75

postganglionic parasympathetic Enteric

Question 76

Axons carried by the Pelvic Splanchnic nerves include _______ CHOOSE TWO!! Correct answer: A. preganglionic parasympathetic GVE B. low threshold GVA C. postganglionic sympathetic GVE D. high threshold GVA

Answer 76

A and B

Question 77

Which one of these cell body types is found in the Inferior Mesenteric Ganglion? Correct answer: A. postganglionic sympathetic B. postganglionic parasympathetic C. preganglionic parasympathetic D. high threshold GVA E. low threshold GVA

Answer 77

A

Question 78

Which of these axon types is found in the Inferior Mesenteric Ganglion? CHOOSE ALL THAT APPLY!! Correct answer: A1. postganglionic sympathetic A.postganglionic parasympathetic B. preganglionic parasympathetic C. high threshold GVA D. low threshold GVA

Answer 78

A1, A, C, D,

Question 79

Which of these plexuses transmits postganglionic sympathetic axons to the descending colon? right colic left colic middle colic superior mesenteric

Answer 79

Left colic

Question 80

The pelvic visceral innervation path includes the pelvic plexus and ganglion / inferior hypogastric plexus and ganglion. What is the most unique thing about that structure? Only one is correct. A. it’s one structure that has two names B. it has no cell bodies C. it houses both sympathetic and parasympathetic postganglionic cell bodies D. no parasympathetic preganglionic axons can be found here

Answer 80

C

Question 81

Axons transmitted by the sigmoid plexus include: A. preganglionic sympathetic B. postganglionic sympathetic C. both of these D. none of these

Answer 81

B

Question 82

Cell bodies housed in the intramural ganglia include: A. preganglionic parasympathetic B. postganglionic parasympathetic C. both of these D. none of these

Answer 82

B

Question 83

Axons transmitted by the lumbar splanchnic nerves include: Correct answer: A. preganglionic sympathetic B. postganglionic sympathetic C. both of these D. none of these

Answer 83

A