Module 7: Respriatory

Question 1

Can acid-based disturbsances be respiratory or metabolic?

Answer 1

They can be both

Question 2

>Equation for cellular respiration?

Answer 2

C6H12O2 + O2 + ADP + Pi -> CO2 + H20 + ATP + Heat

Question 3

Define cellular respiration

Answer 3

Intracellular reaction of oxygen with molecular compounds to produce energy

Question 4

Define external respiration

Answer 4

Movement of gasses between the environment and the body (as discussed over the next few lectures)

Question 5

What limits diffusion in respiration?

Answer 5

Distance limits diffusion

Question 6

Equation for homeostatic regulation of body pH

Answer 6

CO2 + H2O ⇆ H+ + HCO3- (carbonic acid)

Question 7

Two divisions of the respiratory tract?

Answer 7

Upper and lower

Question 8

Order of lung lumens as air enters system?

Answer 8

Trachea -> primary bronchi -> smaller bronci’s -> branchioles -> respiratory bronchioles -> alveoli

Question 9

What surrounds each lung?

Answer 9

The pleural sac

Question 10

Aside from the outer surface of the lungs, what does the pleural sac line?

Answer 10

The inside of the thorax

Question 11

What does the pleural sac do?

Answer 11

Create slippery surfaces and hold lungs against the thoracic wall

Question 12

Important difference between rules of cardiovascular system and respiratory system?

Answer 12

Gasses can be compressed but fluids cannot be compressed

Question 13

What are the four (technically 5) lung volumes?

Answer 13

Dead Space Residual volume Expiratory reserve volume Tidal volume Inspiratory reserve volume

Question 14

What volume of the lung is effected during a simple inspiration/expiration?

Answer 14

Tidal volume

Question 15

What is the additional volume above the tidal volume called?

Answer 15

The inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

Question 16

What is the volume called at the end of a forceful exhalation after the end of a normal expiration?

Answer 16

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

Question 17

What is the volume of air in the respiratory system after maximal exhalation?

Answer 17

Residual volume (RV)

Question 18

What is vital capacity?

Answer 18

VC = IRV + ERV + Vt

Question 19

What is Total lung capacity?

Answer 19

TLC = IRV + ERV + Vt

Question 20

How does inspiration in relation to atmospheric pressure?

Answer 20

Inspiration occurs when alveolar pressure decreases Expiration occurs when alveolar pressure increases

Question 21

What is compliance?

Answer 21

The ability to stretch

Question 22

Difference between high and low compliance?

Answer 22

High compliance stretches easy Low compliance requires more force

Question 23

Restrictive lung diseases due to compliance?

Answer 23

Fibrotic lung diseases (fibrosis) Inadequate surfactant production (NRDS)

Question 24

What is elastance?

Answer 24

The ability to return to resting volume when stretching force is released

Question 25

Where is surfactant more concentrated?

Answer 25

In smaller alveoli

Question 26

What is surfactant composed of?

Answer 26

It is a mixture containing proteins and phospholipids

Question 27

What is the syndrome that effects premature babies naturally? Why?

Answer 27

Premature babies do not produce surfactant (not until birth). Can also be an inadequacy in surfactant concentrations as mature neonates. The condition is known as newborn respiratory distress syndrome (NRDS)

Question 28

What is the non-accurate airway resistance formula?

Answer 28

Total pulmonary ventilation = ventilation rate x tidal volume

Question 29

What is the accurate airway resistance formula?

Answer 29

alveolar ventilation = ventilation rate x (tidal volume - dead space)

Question 30

What regulation matches ventilation and blood flow?

Answer 30

Regulation of the diameters of arterioles and bronchioles matches ventilation and blood flow

Question 31

What does parasympathetic innervation do on airway resistance?

Answer 31

Bronchoconstriction increases resistance

Question 32

What receptors are responsible for bronchodilation? What hormone is responsible?

Answer 32

B2 receptors on smooth muscles relax in response to epinephrine

Question 33

What is the diagnostic technique for ventilation?

Answer 33

Auscultation

Question 34

Five main obstructive lung diseases?

Answer 34

Asthma Obstructive sleep apnea Emphysema Chronic bronchitis Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

Question 35

What is chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)?

Answer 35

Emphysema + chronic bronchitis

Question 36

What is emphysema?

Answer 36

Shortness of breath due to rupture alveoli

Question 37

What is Dalton's law of partial pressure?

Answer 37

Total pressure is equal to sum of individual pressures

Question 38

What are individual pressures in Dalton's law of partial pressures known as?

Answer 38

Partial pressure

Question 39

How to calculate partial pressure of gas in humid air?

Answer 39

Need to subtract water vapour pressure from total pressure Eg: PO2 = (760 –24) x 21% = 155 mmHg 21% refers to oxygen concentration in air, 760 refers to atmospheric pressure and 24 refers to vapour pressure

Question 40

What is the Law of LaPlace equation?

Answer 40

P = 2T/r

Question 41

What divides the upper and lower respiratory system?

Answer 41

It is between the oesophagus/larynx and the trachea

Question 42

What is hypoxia?

Answer 42

Low oxygen in the blood

Question 43

What is hypercapnia?

Answer 43

High CO2 in the blood

Question 44

Three regulated variables to avoid hypoxia/hypercapnia?

Answer 44

O2, CO2, pH

Question 45

Causes of low alveolar PO2?

Answer 45

Altitude (low O2) Inadequate ventilation -Decreased lung compliance -Increased airway resistance -CNS depression (alcohol, drug overdose etc)

Question 46

What is a haemoglobin composed of?

Answer 46

Four globin chains (two alpha and beta) each with an iron at their centre

Question 47

What molecule transports heme in the blood?

Answer 47

Transferrin

Question 48

How is excess iron (Fe) stored?

Answer 48

In the liver by ferritin

Question 49

Where is iron taken up?

Answer 49

In the bone marrow

Question 50

How long do RBC's last for?

Answer 50

120 days

Question 51

Where are old RBC's phagocytised?

Answer 51

In the spleen

Question 52

What are remnants of heme groups converted to? What are they excreted as?

Answer 52

If amino acids aren't incorporated into new proteins, the remnants of heme groups are converted to bilirubin. Excreted as bile.

Question 53

Where are bilirubin metabolites excreted?

Answer 53

In urine

Question 54

What results from elevated levels of bilirubin?

Answer 54

Jaundice

Question 55

What is anaemia?

Answer 55

Haemoglobin content too low

Question 56

Primary factor affecting gas exchange?

Answer 56

Concentration gradient

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Question 116

Aside from the concentration gradient, what are constant factors that impact diffusion of aveolae to RBC?

Answer 116

Surface area Barrier permeability Diffusion distance

Question 117

What does a decrease in amount of alveolar surface area referred to?

Answer 117

Emphysema

Question 118

What disease does an increase in thickness of alveolar membrane refer to?

Answer 118

Fibrotic lung disease

Question 119

What does an increase in diffusion distance between alveoli and blood refer to?

Answer 119

Pulmonary oedema

Question 120

What is the Bohr effect?

Answer 120

Increasing acidity (decreasing pH) decreases affinity for oxygen

Question 121

What does increasing temperature do in the blood?

Answer 121

Decreases affinity for oxygen

Question 122

What does increasing pCO2 do in the blood?

Answer 122

Increasing pCO2 decreases affinity for oxygen

Question 123

What percentage of carbon dioxide is dissolved in the blood?

Answer 123

7%

Question 124

What percentage of carbon dioxide is converted to bicarbonate ions?

Answer 124

70%

Question 125

What is chloride shift?

Answer 125

Cell membranes are generally impermeable to charged ions (i.e.. H+, HCO3− ) but RBCs are able to exchange bicarbonate for chloride using the anion exchanger protein Band 3. Thus, the rise in intracellular bicarbonate leads to bicarbonate export and chloride intake. The term "chloride shift" refers to this exchange.

Question 126

Is chloride concentration lower in systemic venous blood or systemic arterial blood?

Answer 126

Lower in systemic venous blood

Question 127

What enzyme assists rapid interconversion of carbon dioxide and water into carbonic acid?

Answer 127

Carbonic anhydrase

Question 128

What percentage of carbon dioxide is bound to haemoglobin?

Answer 128

23%

Question 129

What molecule, aside from O2/CO2 can also bind to haemoglobin?

Answer 129

H+

Question 130

(Advanced Question) What is a compound of haemoglobin and CO2 referred to?

Answer 130

Carbominohaemoglobin

Question 131

What modulates ventilation?

Answer 131

Ventilation is subject to continuous modulation by chemoreceptor- and mechanoreceptor- linked reflexes and by higher brain centres

Question 132

Two groups in medulla that control ventilation?

Answer 132

Dorsal and ventral respiratory groups

Question 133

Two areas in the pons for respiratory regulation?

Answer 133

The pontine respiratory group is made up of two areas, the pneumotaxic centre and the apneustic centre.

Question 134

Two areas in the pons for respiratory regulation?

Answer 134

The pontine respiratory group is made up of two areas, the pneumotaxic centre and the apneustic centre.

Question 135

Where are the peripheral chemoreceptors for ventilation located? What cells are they composed of?

Answer 135

In the carotid and aortic arteries - they are composed of specialised glomus cells

Question 136

What do chemoreceptors in relation to respiration do?

Answer 136

Respond to changes in CO2 in the cerebrospinal fluid

Question 137

What reflex triggers to prevent over-inflation of the lung?

Answer 137

The Hering-Breuer inflation reflex

Question 138

Aside from the medulla oblongata, what other centres of the brain effect ventilation?

Answer 138

Cerebrum and hypothalamus can change control of brain stem on BR and depth Limbic system can affect breath rate and depth by also bypassing brain stem

Question 139

Why is supplemental oxygen not a good therapy for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease?

Answer 139

Chronically high CO2 levels desensitise CO2-indused respiratory drive; if O2 elevated, breathing rate decreases Too much oxygen can push the CO2 from haemoglobin into the bloodstream, causing CO2 levels to rise in the blood

Question 140

What determines lung volumes?

Answer 140

Age Height Fitness (within limits) Anatomical builds Ethnicity

Question 141

How does renal compensation for respiration occur?

Answer 141

Renal compensation of respiratory acidosis is by increased urinary excretion of hydrogen ions and resorption of HCO3−

Question 142

What does hyperventilation do?

Answer 142

Reduce CO2

Question 143

What does raptures of the deep "Martini effect" refer to?

Answer 143

Reduction in excitability of neurons because of highly lipid-soluble N2

Question 144

When does high-pressure neurological syndrome occur?

Answer 144

Below 30/100ft underwater

Question 145

How can the Martini effect be avoided?

Answer 145

By substituting Helium for nitrogen

Question 146

What is the bends?

Answer 146

Decompression sickness occurs during sudden ascent Rapid reduction N2 quickly comes out of solution Thus, forms bubbles of gaseous N2 in the body, particularly in the joints

Question 147

Why does severity of the bends depend on how long at depth?

Answer 147

Because of how much N2 has dissolved into the blood

Question 148

(Advanced Question) How to facilitate exhalation on rapid ascent?

Answer 148

Say "aaaaaaah"

Question 149

What is a sign someone has had a rapid ascent on emerging?

Answer 149

Vocalisation

Question 150

Why does altitude decompression occur? At what altitude?

Answer 150

9000m altitude depression is because oxygen is less than 30% of that at sea level. Drastically reduce Hb saturation with O2 as a result.

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