module 9

Question 1

what does the parasympathetic devision control in the penis

Answer 1

1. blood vessels dilate
2. Increased blood flow to penis
3. Vascular channels become engorged with blood
4. Erection of penis

Question 2

what does the sympathetic nervous system control in the penis

Answer 2

ejaculation

Question 3

what does the scrotum do

Answer 3

• houses the testies

- composed of the darts and cremaster muscele which maintain optimal temperature (34) for the production of sperm

Question 4

whats the functions of the epididymis

Answer 4

1. stores, nourishes and protects spermatozoa
2. Facilitates functional maturation
3. Recycles damaged sperm
4. Ejaculates the sperm to vas deferens

Question 5

the travel of sperm

Answer 5

Epididymis
ductus/vas deferens
Ejactulatory ducts
Urethra  (total 66 meters)
Secretions are added the sperm by seminal vesicles, prostate

Question 6

whats the ductus deferens

Answer 6

transport sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.

Question 7

whats the seminal vesicle

Answer 7

produces seminal fluid which makes up 60-70% of semen volume and contains substances that enhance sperm mobility and their ability to fertilise an ovum.

Question 8

whats the ejaculatotry duct

Answer 8

transports sperm through the prostate gland to the urethra.

Question 9

prostate gland

Answer 9

doughnut shaped gland, surrounded by urethra and produces 30% of semen volume

Question 10

whats the bulbourethral glands

Answer 10

produces a thick mucous that lubicates the glans of the penis

Question 11

whats the testes contain

Answer 11

interstitial cells which produce and secrete testostorne

seminiferous tubules which produce sperm

Question 12

whats the process of production of sperm

Answer 12

Spermatogenesis
occurs in the seminiferous tables of the testse
Begins at approximately 14 years of age
Results in 400 million new sperm per day
Sperm take 10 weeks to make
Meiosis
Gametes contain 23 chromosomes (one of each pari)

Question 13

whats the structure of sperm

Answer 13

Head: genetic region, nucleus and a vesicle containing enzymes that enable the sperm to penetrate an ovum
Midpiece: metabolic region, mitochondria= energy production
Tail: locomotor region, flagellum= movement

Question 14

what does semen consist of

Answer 14

Epididymal secretions (fluid and sperm) 5%
Seminal vesicle secretions 60%
Prostate secretions 30%
Bulbourethral secretions 5%

Question 15

whats the HPG hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis steps

Answer 15

The hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) 

GnRH signals the release of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and 
luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary 

FSH stimulates sustenocytes (Sertoli cells) in the seminiferous tubules to produce androgen-binding protein (ABP) which concentrates testosterone 

LH stimulates interstitial (Leydig) cells in the seminiferous tubules to produce testosterone 

Concentrated testosterone drives spermatogenesis 

Increased testosterone levels negatively feed back to inhibit GnRH and FSH/LH release 

Inhibin is also produced during spermatogenesis and has negative feedback effects on FSH and GnRH

Question 16

what does testosterone do

Answer 16

stimulates spermatogenesis
Increases growth of reproductive glands and cuts
Increases size of penis
Enhances ability to maintain erection
Stimulates male secondary sex characteristics

Question 17

whats male secondary sex characteristic include

Answer 17

Pubic, axillary and facial hair
– Enhanced hair growth on chest and other areas – Deepening of voice
– Increased skeletal and muscle mass
– Increases metabolism rate
– Influences behaviour

Question 18

what would low GnRH levels affect spermogenizsis

Answer 18

low levels of FSH and LH=not enough testosterone=decrease sperm=decreased fertility

Question 19

function of the vagina

Answer 19

is often called the birth canal
provide passageway for menstral fluids
receives pensi during intercousrse
Acidic environment helps keep the veggie free of infection but makes it hostile to sperm (teenagers have not yet developed an acidic environment making them more susceptible to STD.)

Question 20

whats the function of the uters

Answer 20

is the site of implantation
contracts doing child birth
contains the functional layer which is shed during menses

Question 21

whats the three layers of the uterus

Answer 21

1. Perimetruim outmost layer
2. Myometrium middle later (contracts to expel, baby)- has smooth muscle
3. Endometrium inner later -allows implication of fertilised egg and made of two layers
   Functional Layer (stratum functionalis) - sheds during mutations and changes due to hormones
   Basal layer (stratum basalts) - doesn’t repsond to hormones

Question 22

whats the function of the uterine tube

Answer 22

site of fertilisation

Question 23

whats the function of the frimbriae

Answer 23

has ciliated finger like projections. these assist the coccyges journey into the uterine tube

Question 24

whats the ovaries

Answer 24

2 small almond shaped organs produce female gametes (oocytes), secrete female sex hormones (oestrogen and progesterone)

Question 25

whats oogenesis

Answer 25

occurs in the ovaries | A small number of primary oocytes are recruited each moth to go through process of meiosis to form the mature ovum.

Question 26

whats the two phases of the ovarian cycle called

Answer 26

``` Follicular phases (day 1-14) follicle growth, ovulation occurs at the end of this stage Luteal phase (days 15-28) period of corpus lute activity ```

Question 27

what occurs during the follicular phase

Answer 27

follicle cell develops menses occurs at the start where the destruction of the functional layer (period), then proliferate occurs where the functional layer is repaired and regenerated.

Question 28

what occurs at the end of the follicular phase

Answer 28

ovulation building follicle eventually ruptures the wall of the ovary and the oocyte is released Fluid helps to flush the oocyte out of the follicle Increases in LH trigger ovulation oestrogen also peeks FSH stimulates follicle maturation FSH stimulus the thecal cells and granulose cells to secrete oestrogen

Question 29

what occurs in the luteal phase

Answer 29

Lh levels dramatically decrease ruptured follicle takes on new role of corpus luteum cl secretes progesterones cl degenerates without fertilisation therefore progesterone and oestrogen decrease reultingin follicular stage again

Question 30

stages of the menstral cycle

Answer 30

Day 1-5 Menstral phases (menses shedding of the function later of the endometrium (oestrongen and progesterone are low) Dysmenorrhea= painful menstration Day 6-14: Poliferation (pre ovulatory) phase rebuilding of the functional layer Cervical mucous becomes less viscous and sticky to allow entry of sperm Phase is stimulated and sustained by ovarian oestrogen Ovulation occurs at the end of this phase Day 15-28: Secretion (post ovulatory) phase begins immediately after ovulation Endometrium prepares for implantation Stimulated by progestoerone and oestrogen form corpus lutes If fertilisation does not occur the CL degenerates= low progesterone= breakdown of the endometrium=menses begins again.

Question 31

what does oestrogen do

Answer 31

promotes oogenesis | Increase growth of the vagina, uterus and uterine tubes

Question 32

what does oestrogen and progesterone do to work together

Answer 32

regulate uterine cycle and changes in cervical must Oestrogen promotes repair and regeneration of the functional layer Progesterone promotes blood vessel and gland growth plus gland secretion Maintain pregnancy and stimulate breast growth.

Question 33

the mammary glands

Answer 33

produces milk to nourish newborn Part of integumentary system (modified sweat glands) Areola (pigment skin) Nipple (opening of multiple lactiferous ducts) Mammary glands, 15-25 lobes open to nipple, each lobe has units called lobules, lobules produce milk


Question 34

risks with fertilisation

Answer 34

many sperm leaks from the vagina immediately Many killed by vaginal acid Many get trapped in the thick mucous at the cervix Many are phagocytksed by uterine macrophages Even if sperm reaches the oocyte it needs to wait fro capacitation to occur.

Question 35

what does fertilisation require

Answer 35

Capacitation: requires exposure to secretions of female reproductive tract, takes 8-10 hours.

Question 36

whats the steps of fertilisation

Answer 36

Sperm weave through granulosa cells of the corona radiata Sperm bind to zona pellucida cuscino increased calcium levels in the sperm- this leads to the complete breakdown of the plasma and acrosomal membranes (acrosomal reaction) Acrosomal enzymes are released and digest holes in the zona pellucida The sperm binds to special receptors on the oocyte membrane The sperm and oocyte membranes fuse, releasing sperm DNA into the oocyte Entry of sperm DNA causes increased calcium levels in the oocyteàtriggers the cortical reaction which destroys sperm receptors and hardens the zona pellucida 
- This blocks polyspermy

Question 37

what happens with identical twins

Answer 37

one fertilised zygote divides into two embryos

Question 38

what happens with fraternal twins

Answer 38

two oocytes are released and fertilised individually

Question 39

whats the embryonic development

Answer 39

zygote to blastocyst fertilisation usually occurs in the distal uterine tube When the oocyte is fertilised it becomes a zygote The zygote undergoes cell division (2 cells, 4 cells, 8 cells) occurs in the absence of growth termed “clevage” As cell division continues a fluid filled cavity forms and the zona pelludica starts to break down- structure is now termed Blastocyst The blastocyst consists of: 1. The inner cell mass- becomes the embryo 2. A fluid filled cavity 3. A layer of trophoblast cells- becomes the placenta (nourishes the developing embryo/fetus, removes wastes, produces hormones)

Question 40

whats the blastocyst implant

Answer 40

he zygote/ blastocyst is free floating and travels down the uterine tube into the uterus, nourished by glycogen rich mucus produced by uterine glands Implantation of blastocyst occurs about 6-7 days after fertilisation, half way through the secretory phase when the endometrium is most receptive (good blood supply, lots of nutrient rich mucus) Special proteins on the trophablast cells allow the blastocyst to attach to receptors on the receptive endometrium. The blastocyst buries itself within the endometrium, the endometrial cells cover the blastocyst

Question 41

what happens if implantation is successful

Answer 41

takes about 5 days- usually complete by the 12th day after ovulation Usually just before menstration would normally occur The embryo signals to the corpus lutes in the ovary to continue to produce progesterone and oestrogen this prevents sloughing of function layer of the endometrium. Signaling occurs via the hormone human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) produced by the trophoblasts. hCG bypasses hypothalamic and pituitary control of the ovarian cycle.

Question 42

why is hCG important

Answer 42

maintains the corpus luteum so it continues to produce progesterone and oestrogen. These hormones especiall progesterone, prevent sloughing of endometrium. Endometrium is essential for the nourishment of the embryo Loss of the endometrium would mean loss of the implanted embryo eg miscarriage. Progesteron production must be maintained throughout the pregnancy Embryonic hCG performs this function until 8-12 weeks When the placenta is mature enough to take over hormone production (hCG also promotes placenta development)

Question 43

what occurs during pregnancy testing

Answer 43

hCG levels are present in the mothers blood one week after fertilisation and continue to rise until the end of the second month hCG can be detected in the urine using a home pregnancy test 7-12 days following conception (2-7 days before restoration would normally occur)