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Bio 151 > multicellularity, nervous system, sensory system > Flashcards

multicellularity, nervous system, sensory system Flashcards

1
Q

reoccuring themes of physiology

A

1) homeostasis
2) form and function
3) overcoming the limits of diffusion

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2
Q

simple multicellularity

A
  • adhesion molecules that cause adjacent cells to stick together (colonies)
    -no major specialization of communication between cells
  • every cell in contact with external environment
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3
Q

complex multicellularity

A
  • specialized cell functions
  • communication between cells
  • take in info from environment -> signal -> craft response
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4
Q

pros of multicellularity

A
  • longer life span
  • greater efficiency of specialized cells
  • sexual reproduction leads to more genetic diversity
  • bigger better fit for survival
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5
Q

multicellularity cons

A
  • increased energetic costs
  • have to do more than just diffusion for survival
  • takes longer to reach reproductive maturity
  • possibility for infections
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6
Q

surface area: volume ratio

A

the smaller the animal = larger the SA: V ratio
* smaller organism -> faster molecular diffusion rate

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7
Q

4 types of tissues

A

connective, epithelial, muscular, nervous

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8
Q

connective tissues

A

fat, bone, cartilage

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9
Q

epithelial tissues

A

connectivity/ diffusion tissues
ex. gut epithelial tissues in GI tract

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10
Q

muscular tissue

A

skeletal, smooth (ex. digestive muscles), cardiac

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11
Q

nervous tissues

A

specialized cells that conduct signaling

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12
Q

organ

A

a collection of tissues that structurally form a functional unit specialized to perform a particular function

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13
Q

mechanisms of substance transport

A

diffusion and bulk transport

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14
Q

pathway for systems based in homeostasis

A
  • communication of info to all different specialized cells
  • translate signals into actions
  • distribution of nutrients, energy and oxygen to muscles
  • removal of waste
  • defense immune system
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15
Q

homeostasis neg feedback ex

A

feel cold -> signal to hypothalamus -> muscles shiver -> stop signals once at right temp

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16
Q

nervous system

A

network of neurons that receive, process and transmit information

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17
Q

group of neurons

A

nerve

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18
Q

ganglia

A

collection of nerves

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19
Q

cephalization

A

concentrating sensory organs and sensory neurons at front/anterior of the body; helps sense the environment

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20
Q

convergent evolution

A

evolved independently several times
ex. cephalization

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21
Q

nervous system 3 step mechanism; input and output

A

1) sense (sensory input)
2) integrate/ process
3) coordinate response (motor output)

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22
Q

central nervous system

A

brain and spinal cord; sending and receiving messages to various parts of the body.

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23
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

part of your nervous system that lies outside your brain and spinal cord; sends info from different areas of your body back to your brain and carries out commands from your brain to various parts of your body

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24
Q

3 types of neurons

A

1) sensory neurons
2) interneurons
3) motor neurons

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25
Q

sensory neurons

A

carries sensed impulses from the receptor to the CNS
*structure: cell body can be along axon

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26
Q

interneurons

A

enables communication between sensory or motor neurons and the central nervous system; in CNS

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27
Q

motor neurons

A

carries a signal from the central nervous system (CNS) to an effector cell, which then carries out the desired response

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28
Q

pre synaptic neuron

A

sends signal

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29
Q

post synaptic neuron

A

receives signal

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30
Q

signal transduction steps

A

1) stimuli received by dendrites + cell body
2) signal goes to axon hillock to determine if signal is strong enough to fire action potential
3) signal through axon terminal -> release neurotransmitter
4) neurotransmitter bonds to post synaptic cell membrane -> new signal

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31
Q

axon hillock

A

the region of a neuron that controls the initiation of an electrical impulse based on the inputs from other neurons or the environment; is signal big enough to fire action potential?

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32
Q

relative charges of inside and outside of cell

A

inside: neg
outside: pos

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33
Q

is there more potassium inside or outside of the cell

A

inside

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34
Q

is there more sodium inside or outside of the cell

A

outside

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35
Q

are there more sodium or potassium channels

A

potassium

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36
Q

sodium potassium pump

A

moves Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell against the concentration gradient (active transport)

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37
Q

K+ equilibrium potential

A

-90 mV

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38
Q

Na+ equilibrium potential

A

+60 mV

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39
Q

resting membrane potential

A

the electrical potential difference across the plasma membrane when the cell is in a non-excited state.; -70 mV

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40
Q

what dictates the resting membrane potential of a neuron

A

equilibrium potential

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41
Q

what is used to maintain resting membrane potenial

A

sodium potassium pump

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42
Q

action potential

A

the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell

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43
Q

action potential steps

A

1) threshold
2) depolarization
3) repolarization
4) refractory

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44
Q

action potential; threshold

A

positive ions come into cell increasing its voltage (more pos)

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45
Q

action potential; depolarization

A

large amounts of Na+ come into the cell; large increase in + V

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46
Q

action potential; repolarization

A

large amounts of K rush out of the cell through open pore decreasing cell voltage
*once potential gets to around +40

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47
Q

action potential; refractory

A

membrane potential drops below the resting membrane potential; have to build potential back up

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48
Q

how are the K+ and Na+ pores opened and closed

A

inactivation gates

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49
Q

Saltatory propagation

A

electrical impulses along axons is highly accelerated by the myelin sheath and produces saltating or “jumping” action potentials

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50
Q

node of ranvier

A

a gap in the myelin sheath of a nerve that allow the generation of a fast electrical impulse along the axon.

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51
Q

synapse

A

end of axon terminal where chemical signals released

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52
Q

presynaptic membrane

A

end of neuron that is sending the signal; has Ca2+ channel that is opened by depolarization, Ca2+ released moves vesicles to exocytosis with membrane

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53
Q

where are neurotransmitters released

A

synaptic cleft

54
Q

how are signals recived

A

postsynaptic membrane has ligand/ signal receptors that take neurotransmitters from synaptic cleft

55
Q

glial cells functions

A
  • wrap axon in myelin sheath
    -maintain the blood brain barrier
    -structure/ stabilize neurons
    -maintain homeostasis of interstitial fluid
    -maintain ion conc
    -release lactate for energy
56
Q

how do signals flow down axons

A

bounce/jump from node (protein region)-> to node (no myelin sheath)

57
Q

Astrocytes

A

type of glial cell (70% of CNS); functions
-maintain the blood brain barrier
-structure/ stabilize neurons
-maintain homeostasis of interstitial fluid
-maintain ion conc
-release lactate for energy
-clear neurotransmitters from synapse

58
Q

how many kinds of neurotransmitters do most neurons release

A

only 1

59
Q

how many kinds of neurotransmitters do most neurons accept at dendrites

A

many!

60
Q

how many other neurons does 1 neuron synapse with

A

hundreds

61
Q

ESPS

A

Excitatory postsynaptic potential;
2 types : non summation and temporal summation

62
Q

non summation esps

A

increase in potential (excitatory) BUT not enough to set off action potential (not up to threshold)

63
Q

temporal summation esps

A

potential sums up to threshold potential -> sets off action potenial

64
Q

ISPS

A

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential; membrane potential goes below resting potential.

65
Q

central nervous system

A

brain and spinal cord

66
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

part of your ns that is not brain and spinal cord; somatic and autonomic

67
Q

somatic nervous system

A

subcategory of PNS; controls voluntary, consciously controlled movement
ex. sensing the environment (sensory neurons) and controlled movement (motor neurons)

68
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

subcategory of PNS; controls involuntary, unconsciously controlled movement
2 subcategories; sympathetic and parasympathetic

69
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A

division of PNS autonomic NS; fight or flight response (increased heart rate, dilated pupils, inhibits intestinal system to focus on survival)

70
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A

division of PNS autonomic NS: rest and digest response (slows heart, stimulates intestinal systems/ digestion, constricts pupils)

71
Q

thermo-sensitive sensory cells

A

constantly monitor temp and fire action potentials
- too cold -> signal muscles to shiver
- to hot -> signal for heat loss through sweat
*homeostasis

72
Q

muscle contraction mechanism

A
  • controlled by muscle neurons
  • acetylcholine binds to muscle membrane receptors -> depolarization of muscle cell -> contraction
73
Q

motor end plate

A

The specialized postsynaptic region of a muscle cell

74
Q

afferent nerve

A

bring sensory information to CNS

75
Q

efferent nerve

A

transfer info from CNS

76
Q

sensory receptors

A

special proteins in sensory cells embedded in sensory organs that detect changes in our environment

77
Q

sensory transduction

A

signal from environment taken in and processed (3 main types of receptors)

78
Q

chemoreceptors

A

molecule in environment is specific to certain receptor; indirectly opens ion channel to depolarize cell

79
Q

photoreceptors

A

signal into cell, ion channels close, cell is hyperpolarized
* how our eyes perceive light

80
Q

mechanoreceptors

A

how we perceive tactile information; pressure deforms cuticle, physical change in the ion channel, channels open and cell is depolarized

81
Q

what do mechanoreceptors detect

A

detect touch, pressure, vibration and tension

82
Q

mechanoreceptor reactivity

A

*highly sensitive; low threshold of activation
*highly myelinated -> fast signal

83
Q

action potential firing rate

A

depends on the strength of the signal

84
Q

action potential firing rate; continuous stimuli

A

same high firing rate but less frequent as stimuli prolonges

85
Q

lateral inhibition

A

enhances edge and boarder detection of signal by reducing extiment of adjacent interneurons

86
Q

olfactory sensory neurons

A

neurons in nose that sense odors that bind to receptors on chemosensitive hairs

87
Q

chemosensitive hairs

A

pick up signals from olfactory sensory neurons -> signal transduction pathway -> amplification

88
Q

what do interneurons do for smell pathway

A

integrate info from olfactory receptor before sending info to brain

89
Q

sense of smell and nose size

A

bigger nose -> more chemosensitive hairs (greater SA) -> better sense of smell
ex. chihuahua vs bloodhound
*evolution and genetics

90
Q

how are sweet, savory and bitter flavors received

A

g protein coupled receptors

91
Q

how are salty flavors received

A

Na+ depolarizes cell -> opens Ca2+ channel

92
Q

how are sour flavors received

A

H+ ion channels depolarizes cell AND inhibits K+ channels

93
Q

oral referral

A

causes you to perceive whats going on in the nose as if it is inside the mouth

94
Q

what flavors detected by nose

A

menthol (mint), carbonation, spice/hot

95
Q

stereocilia

A

hair-like protrusions on the surface of sensory cells that serve as mechanoreceptors; motion and gravity

96
Q

statocyst

A

a small organ of balance and orientation in some aquatic animals that contain statolith; help perceive current direction

97
Q

statolith

A

particle in statocysts that stimulates sensory receptors in response to gravity, so enabling balance and orientation

98
Q

mechanoreceptor hair cell

A

Hair cells in the inner ear that detect sound and head movement.

99
Q

support cell

A

mediators of hair cell development, function, death

100
Q

vestibular system

A

functions to detect the position and movement of our head in space; moves faster than eyes

101
Q

semicircular canal

A

fluid movements through semicircular canals cause disruption to sensory cells -> open ion channels -> signal transduction
* in inner ear

102
Q

outer ear

A

collects sound waves and channels them into the ear canal;
auditory canal (pinna -> auditory canal -> eardrum)

103
Q

middle ear

A

connects the sound waves from the external environment and transfers them to the inner ear for auditory transduction.

104
Q

inner ear

A

transform the vibrations into electrical impulses that then travel along the eighth cranial nerve (auditory nerve) to the brain

105
Q

malleus, incus, and stapes

A

3 bones in middle ear

106
Q

Vestibulocochlear Nerve; 2 branches

A
  • vestibular branch: balance and spatial sensation
    -cochlear branch: special sensation of hearing
107
Q

Cochlea

A

receiving and analyzing the sounds which are interpreted by hair cells or stereocilia.

108
Q

entrance to cochlea

A

oval window and round window

109
Q

eardrum

A

vibrates when sound hits it at same frequency of sound wave -> initiates hearing

110
Q

3 step mechanism for hearing

A

1) sound wave directed into auditory canal by pinna
2)sound hits eardrum at same frequency as sound wave -> passed on
3) sound -> mechanical force -> fluid waves (inside cochlea)

111
Q

hair cell activation in inner ear

A

disturbed by fluid wave -> open ion channels -> k+ flows into the cell -> depolarization and signal transduction

*once pathway is activated fluid wave goes opposite direction to depolarize cell

112
Q

basilar membrane

A

membrane in cochlea that supports hair cells, serves as the base layer of the organ of Corti, and propagates sound vibrations that allow the brain to interpret sound

113
Q

tectorial membrane

A

membrane above the hair cells; stimulates movement of hair cells

114
Q

organ of Corti

A

transduction of auditory signals; mechanoreceptor hairs anchored at organ of corti

115
Q

retinal

A

compound bound to the protein opsin; when light hits cis-retinal -> trans-retinal -> activation of protien

116
Q

opsin

A

photoreceptor protein; signaling state regulated by activation of retinal -> G protein pathway cascade

117
Q

fovea

A

part of retina that sharpens visions; (most cones in fovea)

118
Q

retina

A

layer of photoreceptors and glial cells that capture the light that enters your eye and helps translate it into images

119
Q

lens

A

focuses light for the retina

120
Q

cornea

A

transparent shield

121
Q

ciliary muscle

A

muscle in eye that allows you to focus; changes the shape of the lens when your eyes focus on a near object

122
Q

iris

A

colored part of eye; adjusts the size of the pupil to control the amount of light that enters the eye.

123
Q

optic nerve

A

nerves at back of eyes that relay visual info the the brain

124
Q

rod and cone functions

A

rods: cells that allow us to see things in dim lighting
cones: help see color (red, blue, green or combo of both; dependent on nm of wavelength)

125
Q

phototransduction cascade

A

G protein coupled pathway activated by opsin conformational change (retinal) -> cGMP PDE -> Na+ channels close -> HYPERPOLARIZATION

126
Q

PDE function

A

closes Na+ channels to hyperpolarize the cell; at rest cGMP keeps channels open

127
Q

bipolar cell

A

retinal interneurons; photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) -> ganglion cells

128
Q

ganglion cell

A

neurons that connect the retinal input to the visual processing centres within the central nervous system.

129
Q

horizontal cell

A

sharpen image; lateral inhabiton

130
Q

amacrine cell

A

adjust motion and brightness; lateral inhibition

Bio 151 (7 decks)

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