NEU 409 Exam 3 Flashcards

Question

Conceptual Level:

Answer 1

Involves our thoughts, feelings, and ideas Prefrontal cortex Limbic system

Answer 2

Linguistic planning: language content, form, and use (or semantics, grammar, and pragmatics), perisylvian region of left hemisphere Motor planning: plans and arrangements of phonemes Premotor cortex (BA 6) important area for planning Aphasia: problem selecting the right word

Answer 3

Execution of phonemes in time & space Involve discrete movements of tongue, lips, etc. Cerebellum, basal ganglia, and supplementary motor area (BA 6) are important areas to programming

Answer 4

a.k.a., pyramidal system Involves lateral motor system—lateral corticobulbar and corticospinal LMN tracts Function of pathway—voluntary motor movement of contralateral limbs/speech muscles → voluntary motor movement of contralateral limbs/speech muscles Makes few stops Crosses over (decussates) at medulla/spinal cord juncture

Answer 5

Start in motor cortex End in either: Brainstem (corticobulbar) Send signals from brain to cranial nerves OR Spinal cord (corticospinal) Send signals from brain to spinal cord

Answer 6

Upper part of tract (brain and spinal cord) = Upper Motor Neurons (UMN) Lower part of tract (cranial and spinal nerves) = Lower Motor Neurons (LMN) Motor neurons in ventral horn of spinal cord Command muscle contraction UMN damage: Spastic muscles Hypertonia Hyperreflexia (+ reflexes) Clonus (+) Babinski sign - reflex toe problem No atrophy No fasciculations LMN damage: Flaccid muscles Hypotonic Hyporeflexia (– reflexes) No clonus No Babinski sign Marked atrophy Fasciculations

Answer 7

a.k.a., extrapyramidal system Function - Posture, muscle tone for fine movement Indirect pathway with many stops - Includes the medial motor systems: Vestibulospinal Reticulospinal Tectospinal Decussation = none (except for tectospinal) Basal ganglia = the main center of this system

Answer 8

Damage to the pyramidal and/or extrapyramidal systems can lead to: Spastic dysarthria (UMN damage) - Harsh voice, monopitch, hypernasal, slow rate, imprecise consonants Damage to the basal ganglia control circuits can lead to: Hyperkinetic dysarthria (Huntington’s disease) Harsh voice, monopitch, loud voice, imprecise consonants, distorted vowels gaba not working Hypokinetic dysarthria (Parkinson’s disease) Stiff , rigid, slow movements Breathy voice, monopitch, reduced syllable stress, variable speech rate, imprecise consonants dopamine not working ataxic dysarthria Cerebellar lesion u sound drunk ataxia

Answer 9

Basal Ganglia Includes caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, substantia nigra, and subthalamic nuclei Regulates motor functioning especially tone and posture so that we have smooth, precise motor movements Dyskinesias results when this system is damaged - involuntary, erratic, writhing movements of the face, arms, legs or trunk Motor Control Circuits: Cerebellum Coordinates muscle movements so that they are skilled and sequential When damaged, speech can become uncoordinated, resulting in a condition known as ataxic dysarthria. Information is sent to and from the cerebellum to accomplish this

Answer 10

FCP = last leg of a motor signal’s journey Part of the lower motor neurons (LMNs) Involves: Alpha motor neurons - Muscle contraction Gamma motor neurons - Proprioception Cranial nerves

Answer 11

Striated/skeletal: Muscles affecting skeletal movement Usually under voluntary control Smooth: Contraction is slow and sustained Under involuntary control Cardiac: Designed for endurance Involuntary control

Answer 12

- Initiate muscle contraction - Muscle + neuron = motor unit - All alpha motor neurons innervate single muscle = motor neuron pool - Sustained contraction requires continual barrage of Action potentials - Recruiting additional motor units - Innervation ratios vary from muscle to muscle - Muscles with large numbers of small motor units have more control

Answer 13

- Action potential travels to axon terminal - Ach binds to receptors, opening ion channels - Membrane depolarizes, produces large EPSP in postsynaptic membrane Na+ flows into the muscle fiber, K+ flows out of muscle fiber - Reaches threshold, Action potential propagates - Triggers contraction of the muscle fiber

Answer 14

- Sequence of events that converts action potentials in a muscle fiber to a contraction - Action potential across entire sarcolemma - Proteins that control Ca++ release channels - As action potential travels through membrane, opens Ca++ channels, allowing it to flow in the cell - Rapid influx of Ca++ causes muscle contraction

Answer 15

Functional unit of contraction in muscle fiber called sarcomere Cross bridges formed between myosin head and actin fibers Power stroke: ADP released, activated myosin head pivots, sliding actin toward center of sarcomere Cross bridges detach; another ATP binds to myosin head, link weakens and detaches Reactivated myosin head; ATP to ADP, releasing energy, reactivates myosin head ready for next cycle Cross bridge cycling ends when Ca++ actively transported back to Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

Answer 16

Respiration: power for speech Phonation: raw sound for speech Resonance: tonal qualities of speech Articulation: speech sounds Prosody: musical quality of speech Flaccid dysarthria (LMN damage): Breathy voice, monopitch, hypernasal, short phrases, imprecise consonants Apraxia of Speech: production and planning Neurological damage leading to AOS can occur in: - Broca’s area (BA 44, 45) - Supplementary motor area (BA 6) - Insula (insular cortex) - Basal ganglia

Answer 17

Language: a generative and dynamic code containing universal characteristics whereby ideas about the world are expressed through a conventional system of arbitrary symbols for communication Generative—meaning that we produce new and different speech constructions all the time; we don’t have rote utterances, they are all slightly different even when expressing the same idea Dynamic—languages change over time; study of historical linguistics, how language change occurred through history Universal characteristics—all languages follow specific rules and have the same categories of words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc) Ideas expressed—goal of language is to transmit information or a message from one person to another in an abbreviated way; E.g., communication can be achieved by other means (gesture, pointing, drawing pictures), but language allows us to simplify that process and make it more efficient Conventional—shared by a speaking community; we can all understand each other because we all speak the same language Arbitrary symbols—sounds or letters in words do not usually have a direct or specific relationship to the object (e.g., “book” is just the agreed upon string of sounds we use to label that thing made of paper that you read)

Answer 18

Content= semantics, meaning of language - The meaning of words (e.g., “dog”) - The meaning of words in combination - (i.e., semantic relations; e.g., “dog barks” Form= - Phonology – Study of phonemes, the smallest units in a language system, and sound structure (e.g., /p/) - Morphology – Study of morphemes, the smallest units of meaning in a language, and word structure (e.g., /pet/) - Syntax – Study of phrase/sentence structure; specifically, word order and sentence organization (e.g., /My pet is a dog./) Use= pragmatics, practical use of language; interactions with others, turn taking, eye contact - Pragmatics - take turns - Practical use of language; in what manner the language is used with others - Example of a pragmatic rule: “In conversation, it is appropriate to take turns.

Answer 19

Broca’s area = language production, frontal gyrus BA 44 = pars opercularis BA 45 = pars triangularis 1. Selects relevant information from competing irrelevant information - NOT specific to language, but processes all kinds of information 2. Specific role in processing complex syntactic structure - Only role is specific to language 3. Some areas specific to language and other areas more general - Used mostly for language processing BUT other parts of this area more general 4. Morphological manipulation - E.g., Adding/interpreting word endings -ed, -ing Wernicke’s area = language comprehension Arcuate fasciculus = interaction between comprehension & production (e.g., repetition, reading aloud)

Answer 20

Language is NOT separated into comprehension and production, but is a unification of different types of linguistic processing Language is not processed by single brain regions Language is processed by a DYNAMIC NETWORK of brain regions - Role of each brain region is dependent on the interaction with other regions White matter tracts involved in language network: Connectivity between language regions much more extended than previously thought Notice, the arcuate fasciculus is not just one direction!

Answer 21

STEPS: Cochlea to cochlear nuclear complex (CNC) via cranial nerve VIII-8 to thalamus to primary auditory cortex (41,42) to Wernicke’s area (22) to BA 44 of Broca’s area (syntax) - Primary auditory cortex analyzes all types of sound, speech or otherwise - Left primary auditory cortex more sensitive to speech characteristics (e.g., timing, transitions between speech sounds) - Right primary auditory cortex more sensitive to pitch of speech - Planum temporale on Wernicke’s area, brings information in from surrounding brain areas - Planum temporale on Wernicke’s area, function not entirely known, but possibly acoustic analysis - Some syntactic processing, but mostly implicated in storage of verb arguments - Broca’s possibly related to more complex syntactic processing

Answer 22

Steps: Eyes to lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of thalamus via optic tracts LGN to visual cortex (17,18,19) via geniculocalcarine tract Visual areas to ventral and dorsal streams of vision For reading, 3 other cortical areas involved: Parietotemporal system Word analysis: Decoding semantics & phonology Includes angular gyrus (BA39), supramarginal gyrus (BA40), posterior superior temporal lobe Occipitotemporal system Word form recognition: Sight reading, fast access to whole words, assists with mapping letters to corresponding sounds Left inferior occipital, left inferior-posterior temporal areas, fusiform gyrus (face & word recognition) Anterior reading system Word analysis: Decoding syntax and articulation; maybe role in silent reading Broca’s area, premotor areas

Answer 23

Decision to speak formed in the prefrontal cortex. Decision sent to Broca’s area (44,45) for language encoding and speech planning. Speech plans sent to supplementary motor area (SMA) (6), which activates the plans. SMA (6) sends to motor cortex (4), which sends activated plans to speech muscles

Answer 24

Decision to write formed in the prefrontal cortex. Decision sent to Broca’s area (44,45) for language encoding. Writing plans sent to premotor area (6), which forms grapheme motor plans. Premotor area (6) sends to the motor cortex (4), which sends plans to hand muscles. Areas 5 and 7 aid visual spatial elements of writing.

Answer 25

Acquired = caused by stroke, brain injury, etc. Multimodality = problem in multiple language modalities (listening, speaking, reading, writing) Language = the symbolic code we use to communicate Disorder = language system does not function as it should NOT a disorder of intellect or cognition expect for working memory or a disorder of perception Fluent aphasia - wernickes Non fluent aphasia - broca's

Answer 26

Expressive language problems: Agrammatism: Broca bad grammar Anomia: inability to name or retrieval specific - all types of aphasias Jargon: wernickes - fluent speech not making sense Paraphasias: semantic (mixing up like cat for dog - related), phonemic (sound similar - model bottle), Verbal, Neologistic (same as jargon but made up mixed up words) Stereotypic utterances: only say one word Agraphia: all types of aphasias - writing problems Receptive(reading) language problems: Auditory comprehension loss: all aphasia won't understand everything 100% mostly broca also werencikes Alexia: reading problems Peripheral alexia: reading difficulty due to visuospatial and attentional issues Central alexia: reading system damaged Writing Problems: Agraphia: an acquired disorder of writing Peripheral agraphia: writing difficulty due to visuospatial and attentional issues Central agraphia: writing system damaged

Answer 27

What is Cognition? Perceiving, remembering, understanding, judging, memory, attention, and reasoning Executive Function: Orientation, Memory, New Learning, Reasoning, Problem Solving, Thought Organization Cognitive functions that order and manage all other cognitive functions (e.g., attention, memory) for the purpose of setting and attaining goals The prefrontal cortex is located at areas 9, 10, 11, 46 and 47. Attention: a person's ability to focus (i.e., focused attention) on a stimulus in the environment.

Answer 28

Attention Types: Sustained Focus on a stimulus over a period of time Examples:Reading a book, Listening to a lecture Attention Types: Selective Focusing on a stimulus while filtering out competing stimuli Example: Listening to this lecture while ignoring the texts coming in on your phone and the conversation your neighbors are having Attention Types: Alternating Shifting focus from one task to another and then back Example: In class, focusing on this lecture, then discussing a question with your neighbor, then focusing on the lecture again Attention Types: Divided Focus on two stimuli at the same time Example: Taking notes in class while simultaneously listening to the lecture

Answer 29

Memory: the storage of information Sensory memory = memory related to senses, visual, auditory, olfactory, etc. Working memory = space for manipulation Short-term memory = time in seconds Long-term memory = time in days to years - biographical info Decelerative: episodic and semantic = dementia in MT and diencephalon Non Decelerative: Disease in BG is parkinsons and huntingtons

Answer 30

1. Oral preparatory phase 2. Oral phase 3. Pharyngeal phase 4. Esophageal phase

Answer 31

Voluntary stage of the swallow, Food is placed in the mouth and prepared for swallowing, Oral breathing ceases, and nasal breathing takes its place. Mastication (chewing) involves - Trigeminal nerve (CN V) innervates the muscles for mastication (i.e., chewing) - Mandibular elevators: masseter, temporalis, and pterygoid - Mandibular depressors: mylohyoid and anterior belly of digastric muscle then gland secretion with saliva works along side mastication to break down food using CN IX 9 and CN VII(7)

Answer 32

Voluntary stage of the swallow Tongue forms ramp and moves bolus from the oral cavity to the pharyngeal cavity Labial seal and nasal breathing maintained then Tounge retraction using trigeminal nerve CN VII controlled by Digastric muscle and Mylohyoid muscle then anterior - posterior bolus movement where Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII 12) controls most of the intrinsic and extrinsic tongue muscles

Answer 33

Involuntary stage as bolus contacts faucial arches: Soft palate elevates, Vocal cords adduct, Respiration pauses, Larynx elevates, and Cricopharyngeus relaxes. Brainstem involved when Nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) acts as a swallowing sensory center and receives afferent information from CN V, VII, IX, and X. Then Nucleus ambiguous (NA) is the motor swallowing center and Innervates the swallowing muscles via CN IX 9, X 10, and XII 12. Then triggering of sensory information sent to brainstem & cortex decided by medulla, then laryngeal closure so valves close to protect the airway from the bolus entering it. Then laryngeal elevation - various suprahyoid muscles contract during the pharyngeal stage so normal swallow example. Then pharyngeal constriction is controlled by CN X 10 and XI 11.

Answer 34

Involuntary swallowing stage when peristaltic waves move bolus through the esophagus. Esophagus opening by upper esophageal sphincter (UES) is controlled by the cricopharyngeus (CP) muscle which is innervated by the vagus nerve. Then Esophagus constriction collapsed when a bolus is not present and contains 3 parts Cervical region: made up of striated muscle Thoracic region: made up of striated and smooth muscle Abdominal region: made up of smooth muscle

Answer 35

Silent Aspiration: bolus penetrates the airway below the level of the vocal cords. About one-third of dysphasic patients aspirate without any signs (i.e., no cough). Dysphagia: Diffculty swallowing Causes - Neurological Causes: Stroke, TBI, Spinal cord injury, Degenerative diseases, Brain tumors OR Mechanical Causes: Acute inflammations, Cancer, Cervical spinal disease, NG tubes, Artificial airways Oral Preparatory Stage: Difficulty chewing Food falling out of mouth (poor lip seal) Oral Stage: Food remaining in mouth (pocketing) Difficulty forming bolus Difficulty moving bolus backwards in mouth (anterior to posterior movement) Pharyngeal Stage: Swallow delay Swallow absence Pooling of bolus Esophageal Stage: Bolus staying in esophagus (dysmotility due to lack of peristaltic waves)

Answer 36

The illusion occurs when the auditory component of one sound is paired with the visual component of another sound, leading to the perception of a third sound. difference between /da/ and /ta/?

Answer 37

Hearing → Acoustic Energy Waves → Neural Impulses → Interpreted By Brain Peripheral Auditory System: Outer Ear Stage: Sound located in the environment, Pinna collects sound Middle Ear Stage: Tympanic membrane vibrates, Energy transmitted through ossicles Inner Ear Stage: Waves in the cochlear fluids Central Auditory System: Auditory Cortex - Thalamus - Brainstem Midbrain - Brainstem Medulla Pons - CN V11 7 Hair cells depolarize similar to neurons.

NEU 409 Exam 3 Flashcards

(61 cards)