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Neurology Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the two types of neurotransmitter receptors?

A

Metabotropic

Ionotropic

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2
Q

What type of receptor are the majority of neurotransmitter receptors?

A

Metabotropic

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3
Q

Name four neurotransmitters that act generally.

A

Glutamate
Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA)
Glycine
Acetylcholine

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4
Q

Where is glutamate the main excitatory neurotransmitter?

A

In the CNS

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5
Q

Name the 3 ionotropic receptors for glutamate and state what they are permeable to.

A

AMPA - sodium
NMDA - calcium and sodium
Kainate - sodium and calcium

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6
Q

What does prolonged activation of glutamate receptors result in?

A

Hyperexcitability, leading to seizures and excitotoxicity

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7
Q

Give 2 examples of what blocks glutamate receptors and what does this cause?

A

Ketamine and alcohol

Results in sedation

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8
Q

Where in the body in GABA the main inhibitory neurotransmitter?

A

In the CNS

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9
Q

What are the two types of GABA receptor?

A

GABA A - ionotropic receptor that conducts Cl

GABA B - metabotropic receptor

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10
Q

What does activation of GABA A result in?

A

Sedation

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11
Q

Name 2 substances that activate GABA A receptors.

A

Alcohol and benzodiazapines, such as lorazepam

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12
Q

What does activation of GABA B receptors result in at the synapse?

A

Presynaptic inhibition of GABA release

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13
Q

What is the effect of positive allosteric modulators on GABA?

A

Potentiates the effect of GABA on GABA A receptors

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14
Q

What do GABA analogues do and what are the clinical signs?

A

Increase the amount of GABA available

Have a relaxing, anti-anxiety and anti-convulsive effect

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15
Q

Why are glia important for glutamate and GABA?

A

Important for the synthesis of them and also “mop up” excess neurotransmitter

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16
Q

What type of of neurotransmitter is glycine: inhibitory or excitatory?

A

Inhibitory

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17
Q

What type of receptors does glycine act on?

A

Ionotropic receptors that conduct chloride ions

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18
Q

What are glycine receptors blocked by?

A

Strychnine

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19
Q

Where is glycine mainly active?

A

Brainstem and spinal cord

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20
Q

Where in the brain is the principal source of serotonin?

A

Raphe nuclei

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21
Q

How many Raphe nuclei are there, and where are they found?

A

7-8

Located near the midline of the brainstem and around the reticular foramen

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22
Q

What is serotonin implicated in?

A 
Depression
Appetite control
Nausea
Sleep
Sexual arousal
Analgesia
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23
Q

What type of receptors are serotonin receptors?

A

All are metabotropic G-protein coupled receptors, except 5-HT 3 which is ionotropic

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24
Q

How is serotinergic action primarily terminated?

A

By reuptake of serotonin, which is down through SERT (a specific monoamine transporter for serotonin) on the presynaptic neuron

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25
What is special about drug targets for serotonin?
All 5 elements in the life of a neurotransmitter are drug targets for serotonin
26
Name a drug type that can block transporters of serotonin.
SSRIs
27
What drug can activate receptor 5-HT 1B and what is this drug used to treat?
Sumatriptan | Treats migraines
28
Name a type of drug that activates 5-HT 2A receptors.
Hallucinogenic drugs
29
Name a type of drug that blocks 5-HT 2A receptors.
Atypical antipsychotics
30
Name a drug that blocks 5-HT 3 receptors and what is it used to treat?
Odansetron | An anti-emetic
31
Where does serotonin exist outside the nervous system?
In vast stores in enterochromaffin cells in the lining of the GI tract
32
What parts of the brain make acetylcholine and where do they project to?
Basal forebrain- project to cortex and hippocampus | Brainstem tegmentum - project to thalamus, brainstem and cerebellum
33
Which subdivision of the nervous system is acetylcholine the main neurotransmitter for?
Autonomic nervous system
34
What are the receptors for acetylcholine and what type of receptors are they?
Nicotinic - ionotropic | Muscarinic - metabotropic
35
Which part of the brain synthesises dopamine?
Ventral midbrain - substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area
36
What is the substantial nigra thought to be involved in?
Movement control
37
What is the ventral segmental area involved in?
Reward Novelty Motivation
38
In what disorders is there thought to be something wrong with the dopaminergic system?
Schizophrenia Drug addiction Tourettes Parkinsons disease
39
What are the receptors of the dopaminergic system and what type are they?
D1 - excitatory metabotropic | D2 - inhibitory metabotropic
40
What type of drugs block dopamine receptors and name 2.
Antipsychotic medications - haloperidol and quetiapine
41
What part of the brain produces noradrenaline?
Locus coeruleus
42
What type of receptor are adrenergic receptors?
Metabotropic
43
What part of the brain produces histamine and where does it project to?
Hypothalamus -projects throughout brain
44
What are the 3 major types of endogenous opioid peptides?
Endorphins Enkephalins Dynorphins
45
What are endorphins similar to and what are their effects?
Like morphine | Have endogenous analgesic effect
46
Where in the brain are endogenous opioids synthesised, and what as?
By hypothalamus as propeptides
47
Once synthesised, where are endogenous opioids projected to?
Periaqueductal grey | Brainstem
48
What and where is the periaqueductal grey?
Grey matter located around the cerebral aqueduct within the tegmentum of the midbrain
49
What is the main function of endogenous opioids?
Neuromodulators that regulate the release and activity of other neurotransmitters
50
What does damage to CN VIII result in?
Unilateral hearing loss, tinnitus and vertigo
51
What is the function of V1?
Sensation from the cornea, skin of forehead, scalp, eyelids, nose and mucosa of nasal cavity
52
What does damage to CN XI cause?
Paralysis of sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscle causing drooping of shoulder
53
What is CN IV called?
Trochlear nerve
54
How does cranial nerve I exit the cranium?
Through the cribiform plate
55
What is the pons involved in?
``` Sleep Respiration Swallowing Posture Taste ```
56
What is CN XI and what is its function?
Spinal accessory nerve - motor innervation to sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscle
57
Through which space and then which sinus does CN IV run on its way to the orbit?
Through the subarachnoid space and then through the cavernous sinus
58
What is CN VIII?
Vestibulocochlear nerve
59
What is the most ventral part of the midbrain?
The paired cerebral peduncles
60
What does damage to CN XII result in?
Protruded tongue deviates towards affected side Moderate dysarthria Disturbance of articulation
61
How does CN XII leave the skull?
Through the hypoglossal canal
62
What does damage to CN IX cause?
Loss of taste over posterior third of tongue Loss of sensation over affected side of palate Loss of gag reflex on affected side
63
What 4 nerves exit the skull through the superior orbital fissure?
Oculomotor nerve Trochlear nerve Ophthalmic nerve (trigeminal nerve 1) Abducens nerve
64
In the brainstem, what does the pons link?
The thalamus to the medulla oblongata
65
What is CN IX?
Glossopharyngeal nerve
66
Where does CN VIII originate?
The vestibular nerve in the vestibular ganglion in the brain stem and the cochlear nerve in the spiral ganglion in the brainstem
67
Where is CN XI formed?
From neurone at the top of the spinal cord
68
Where does CN IX originate in the brainstem?
Medulla oblongata
69
What is CN X?
Vagus nerve
70
What are the motor functions of CN IX?
Somatic - innervation to stylopharyngeus muscle | Visceral - parasympathetic innervation to parotid gland
71
What is the function of CN IV?
Motor innervation to direct gaze of eye inferomedially
72
Which cranial nerves do not come off the brainstem?
CN I (olfactory) and CN II (optic)
73
What is the red nucleus?
A motor nucleus that sends a descending tract to lower motor neurone
74
Where are the inferior and superior colliculus found?
Tectum of the midbrain
75
In what disease is the substantial nigra thought to be involved in the pathology?
Parkinson's disease
76
What is the function of CN VIII?
Vestibular nerve - vestibular sensation from semicircular ducts, urticle and saccular relating to position and movement of head Cochlear nerve - hearing from the cochlear
77
What is the superior colliculus involved in?
Sense of vision
78
How does the cerebellum play an important role in motor control?
It contributes to coordination, precision and accurate timing
79
What would damage to CN I lead to?
Loss of smell
80
What is the special sensory function of CN IX?
Taste from the posterior third of the tongue
81
What is CN II and what is its function?
Optic nerve - vision
82
What is CN V and what are its divisions?
Trigeminal nerve - Ophthalmic nerve, Maxillary nerve and Mandibular nerve
83
Where do the sensory and parasympathetic parts of CN VII originate from?
Nervus intermedius
84
What is the inferior colliculus involved in?
Sense of hearing
85
What does damage to CN IV cause?
Inability to rotate an adducted eye inferiorly
86
What 3 nerves exit the skull through the jugular foramen?
``` Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) Vagus nerve (CN X) Spinal accessory nerve (CN XI) ```
87
What does damage to CN III result in?
Dilated pupils Ptosis Eye rotates inferiorly and laterally
88
What is the medulla oblongata continuous with?
Spinal cord
89
What is contained in the brain stem?
Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata
90
What is the visceral motor function of CN VII?
Supplies lacrimal glands and the sublingual and submandibular salivary glands
91
Where does CN VI leave the brainstem?
At the junction of the pons and the medulla
92
Along which lateral wall does CN V1 pass along?
Cavernous sinus
93
What is the chord tympani?
Nerve that originates from the taste buds in the front of the tongue, runs through the middle ear and carries taste messages to the brain
94
What does the chord tympani join to and where?
With the facial nerve in the facial canal
95
What is CN VI?
Abducens nerve
96
How does CN X leave the skull?
Through the jugular foramen
97
What is the function of CN VI?
Motor function to the lateral rectus muscle to direct gaze laterally
98
What are the three lobes of the cerebellum?
Anterior lobe Posterior lobe Flocculonodular lobe
99
How does CN V3 leave the skull?
Through the foramen ovale
100
How does CN II exit the skull?
Through the optic canal
101
Where do the 3 branches of CN V converge and where is this located?
Trigeminal ganglion - in Meckel's cave
102
What autonomic functions are controlled in the medulla?
Breathing Heart rate Blood pressure
103
What 2 nerves exit the skull through the internal acoustic meatus?
Facial nerve | Vestibulocochlear nerve
104
What is the substantial nigra?
A concentration of neurons that use dopamine and are involved in both motor function and emotion
105
What is the function of CN III?
Somatic - innervate muscles to raie upper eyelid, and control superior, inferior and medial gaze Visceral - control constriction of pupil and control accommodation of lens
106
What is the somatic motor function of CN VII?
innervate muscles of facial expression
107
What is the function of CN XII?
Motor innervation to muscles of tongue, except palatoglossus
108
What is CN VII?
Facial nerve
109
How does CN V2 leave the skull?
Through foramen rotundum
110
What is the path of CN XI through the skull?
Enters through the foramen magnum and exits via jugular foramen
111
What cranial nerve is most likely to be damaged if there is laceration or contusion to the parotid region and what does it cause?
``` CN VII (facial nerve) Bells palsy - paralysis of facial muscles ```
112
Where does CN III originate?
Midbrain
113
What separates the lobes of the cerebellum?
Primary fissure - separates anterior and posterior | Posterior fissure - above flocculonodular
114
What does damage to CN VI cause?
Inability to rotate the eye laterally with diplopia on lateral gaze
115
What are the three parts of the midbrain?
Tectum Tegmentum Paired cerebral peduncles
116
How is damage to CN II usually caused?
Trauma Pressure Clot
117
What is CN XII?
Hypoglossal nerve
118
Where does CN XII emerge from the brainstem?
Medulla
119
What is CN I and what is its function?
Olfactory nerve - sense of smell
120
What is the function of CN V3?
Sensation of skin over mandible, including TMJ and mucosa of mouth Motor innervation of muscles of mastication
121
What is CN III?
Oculomotor nerve
122
What is the function of CN V2?
Sensation of skin over maxilla
123
Where are the pontine nuclei found?
Pons

Medicine (19 decks)

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