Nov 13, 15, 20 Flashcards
(596 cards)
1
Q
What does structural ambiguity imply?
A
the same word order, different constituent structure
e.g., Pat saw a man with binoculars:
it can be that Pat used binoculars to see the man, or that Pat saw the man who was using binoculars
2
Q
Can you conjoin two NP?
A
yes
e.g., sleep dogs and cats
it could be sleepy dogs, and cats that are not or
sleepy dogs and sleepy cats
3
Q
In the phrase “Pat saw a man with binoculars”, what is under the master NP and what is under the master VP?
A
NP - Pat
VP - saw a man with binoculars
4
Q
What is the morphological tree for “Pat saw a man with binoculars”?
A
S- NP-N-Pat VP-V-saw VP-NP-Det-a VP-NP-N-man VP-PP-P-with VP-PP-NP-N-binoculars
5
Q
How can “sleepy dogs and cats” be presented as a syntactic tree?
A
NP NP-Adj-sleepy NP-N-dogs NP-Conj-and NP-NP-N-cats
6
Q
What does the phrase “sleepy dogs and cats” provide an example of?
A
sometimes in syntactic tree a NP can branch to a N, which can branch to another N, as opposed to branching to another NP
7
Q
Why would a noun branch into another noun in a syntact structure?
A
sometimes the nouns are equal, and need to remain at the same level
e.g., sleepy dogs and cats
NP-Adj-sleepy
-N-N-dogs
- Con-and
-N-N cats
8
Q
What is the syntactic structure for “you can enjoy a gourmet meal in your sweatpants”?
A
S
- NP-N-you
- Aux-can
- VP-V-enjoy
- NP-Det-a
- Adj-gourmet
- N-meal
- PP-P-in
- NP-Det-your
- N-sweatpants
9
Q
How can the phrase “you can enjoy a gourmet meal in your sweatpants” be varied in syntactic tree?
A
the part “in your sweatpants” can branch from the NP for “a gourmet meal”, rather than from the direct VP for “enjoy”
10
Q
What is the word order typology for English?
A
typically subject-verb-object (35%)
11
Q
What is the most typical word order typology?
A
SOV (44%)
Japanese, Turkish
12
Q
What is the word order for Irish?
A
VSO
13
Q
What is the word order for Arabic?
A
VSO
14
Q
What is the word order forFijian?
A
VOS
15
Q
What is the word order for Malagasy
A
VOS
16
Q
What are the rarest word order typologies?
A
OSV and OVS
17
Q
What does headedness refer to?
A
when the subejct of the sentence initiates or ends the sentence
e.g. English: eat the apple
Hindi Apple eat
18
Q
Are word order typologies the same as headedness?
A
No. I’m not sure why.
19
Q
______ is how sentences and other phrases can be constructed out of smaller phrases and words
A
syntax
20
Q
Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the component of -
A
grammar
21
Q
How do you know which combintions of words are sentences and which are not? This is the study of
A
syntax
22
Q
Words and phrases are all linguistic —
A
expressions
23
Q
Syntax is concerned with how expressions combine with one another to form larger _
A
expressions
24
Q
When a string of words really does form a sentence of some language, we say it is
A
grammatical
25
If some string of words does not form a sentence, we call it _ and mark it with the symbol _
ungrammatical
| *
26
When a sentence is grammatical, we say that it is syntactically _
well-formed
27
If a sentence is ungrammatical, we say that it is _ _
syntactically ill-formed
28
Native speaks of a given language are uniquely qualified to decide whether a string of words forms a sentence in the native language, thereby making a
grammaticality judgment
29
A _ _ is a reflection of speakers' mental grammar, and not a test of the _ _ of the prescriptive rules
grammatical judgment
| conscious knowledge
30
Why do syntax and semantics sometimes are dependent on one another?
assembling sentences and other phrases is to communicate more complex meanings than we could if we just used individual words
e.g., Bob likes Sally
vs.
Sally likes Bob
31
The meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the expresions and on the way they are syntactically combined is called the _ _ _
principle of compositionality
32
When you know a language, you can understand an infinite number of sentences because you know the meanings of the _ expressions
lexical
33
When you know a language, you know the consequences that different ways of syntactically combining words will have on the meaning of larger, multi-word _ _
phrasal expressions
34
Although all language have a(n) _ lexicon, they all allow a(n) _ number of meaningful sentences
FINITE
| INFINITE
35
Can syntax and semantics be independent? Why or why not?
Yes
it is possible to have a grammatical syntactically well-formed sentence with a bizarre meaning, and its opposite
e.g., colorless green ideas sleep furiously (syntactically correct)
vs
Green sleep colorless furiously ideas (syntactically illk-formed)
36
It's possible for actual sentences to express _ meanings and for non-sentences to convey _ meanings
```
strange
ordinary
e.g., Sally ate (doesn't require an object)
vs
*Sally devoured (needs an object)
```
37
If we assume that meanings determine the syntactic properties of expressions, then we would NOT expect to see _ _ across languages
syntactic differences
e.g. Ana has a dog
vs.
[Ana has a dog]
38
Words with equivalent meanings can behave quite _ syntactically in different languages
differently
39
While syntactic combination has consequences for the meanins that sentences express, meanings do not determine the _ _ of _ and syntactic _-formedness is largely independent of meaning
syntactic properties of expressions
| well-formedness
40
What are syntactic properties?
the kinds of restrictions that exist on combinations of expressions
41
What is involved with syntactic properties? word _ and _ of expressions
word order
| co-occurrence of expressions
42
What is co-occurrence of expressions?
if some expression occurs in a sentence, this determines what other expressions can or must co-occur with it in that sentence
43
Deviating from the word order pattern usually results in _
ungrammaticality
e. g., Sally walked
vs.
* walked Sally
44
35% of the world's language are SVO, like _ and
English
45
The majority of languages (44%) show SOV pattern, such as _ and _
Korean and Turkish
46
About 19% of languages are VSO, like _ and _
Arabic and Irish
47
What word order patterns are rare?
VOS, OVS, and OSV
e.g., Vos - Austronesian language spoken in Madagascar
washes clothes with the soap the man
"The man washes clothes with the soap"
48
Many different languages use different _ _ in different contexts
word order
e.g., German typically SVO, while subordinate clauses exhibit SOV
e.g., Kart cooks the soup
vs
Magda is happy that Karl the soup cooks
"Magda is happy that Karl is cooking the soup"
49
English has a different word order when using _ sentences, featuring _ word order
```
topicalized
VSO
e.g., Is Sally a student?
OSV
e.g., Oh, apples, I like
```
50
In English, the determine "that" must precede the _
noun
e. g., Sally still hasn't rad these books
vs.
* Sally still hasn't read books these
51
In English, prepositions such as "with" must come immediately to the _ of the noun phrase
left
e. g., Sally finally met with that person
vs.
* Sally finally met that person with
52
In Japanese, expressions like "to" [with] are called _
POSTpositions, not prepositions
e.g., this child with
"with this child"
53
Languages can have word order restrictiosn that mandate that a certain expression occur in a _
specific position in a sentence
54
Many expressions have co-occurrence requirements, with certain other expressions are required to occur in that sentence as well. These are referred to as
arguments (co-occurence the verb "devour" with an object)
e. g. sally devoured an apple
vs.
* Sally devoured
55
If the occurrence of some expression x in a sentence necessitates the occurrence of some expression y, then we say that y is a(n)
argument
e.g.,
Sally devoured an apple
- "devoured" requires two arguments: an object (an apple) and a subject (Sally), or
- Sally and an apple are both arguments of devoured
56
Non-subject arguments are specifically called _
complements
e.g.,
Sally devoured an apple - an apple is a complement of devoured
57
If a language has very flexible word order, is it still sentence to the co-occurrence requirements of expressions?
yes
58
Arguments do not have to be _ _
noun phrases
59
T or F: expressions can require multiple complements
true
e.g., Sally told Polly she's leaving - Polly and she's are comps of told
Sally put the book on the desk - book and on the desk are comps of put
Sally persuaded Bob to go on vacation - Bob and to go on vacation are both comps of persuaded
60
For a sentence to be well-formed, all the expressions it contains have to have all and only the _ they need
```
arguments
e.g., devoured needs exactly one subject argument and exactly one complement, there fore
*Sally devoured, and
*Sally devoured an apple a pear
are ungrammatical
```
61
The restriction on the number of arguments that an expression can combine with can also be observed with _ and _
nouns and determiners
e.g., a noun such as dog cannot occur by itself. rather, it has to be preceded by a determiner such as "a", but it cannot be preceded by more than one determiner
62
Can languages differ in terms of co-occurrence restrictions, just as they could differ in terms of word order?
yes
63
While thre have to be exactly the right number and type of arguments for each expression in a sentence, there are certain kinds of expressions whose occurrence in a sentence is purely option. These kinds of expressions are called
adjuncts
e.g.,
Sally like SMALL dogs
Sally likes SMALL FLUFFY dogs
64
T of F : you are limited to the number of adjunct expressions in a sentence otherwise you wind up with a non-sentence
F, it is nearly limitless
65
_ adjectives don't have to occur in the sentence if it is grammatical
attributive
| e.g., Sally likes SMALL dogs
66
Can you add atributive adjectives to any sentence?
no
e. g., Sally likes Bob
* Sally likes fluffy Bob
67
The occurrence of attributive adjectives in a sentence is dependent on there being...
expressions that can be describe
| e.g., dogs - SMALL, FLUFFY
68
Are arguments and adjuncts always different?
no.
| If X is an adjunct of Y, then Y is an argument of X because the presence of Y in a sentence is necessary for X to occur
69
If Y is an argument of X, then X is always Y's adjunct
false
e. g., Sally runs vs.
* Sally runs sleeps (runs is not an adjunct, and neither is sleeps)
70
adjuncts are sometimes called
modifiers
| e.g., Sally likes dogs vs Sally likes SMALL dogs (i.e. she doesn't like all dogs)
71
Arguments are _, while adjuncts are _
obligatory
| optional
72
You cannot have more than the required in _, and you can have as many as you like in _
arguments
| adjuncts
73
You can be freely ordered with respect to one another in _, and you cannot be freely ordered with respect to one another in _
adjuncts
| arguments
74
Another kind of requirement that expressions can have concerns the particular _ form of their arguments, known as a(n)
morphological
| agreement
75
Inflectional morphological form of an expression influences _ requirements
co-occurrence
e. g., Sandy likes Bob
vs.
* (I/you/we/they) likeS Bob
76
The _ form of an expression can convey information about number, person, gender, and other so-called grammatical features, or some combination of them
inflectional
77
Demonstratives also show agreement patterns with _ in number
nouns
e. g., This girl came
vs.
* This girlS came
78
English distinguishes only singular and plural number for _, but other languages can have different kinds of grammatical number
nouns
79
What other language distinguishes between singular, plural, and dual, for groups of two things?
```
Inuktitut
e.g.,
nuvuja - cloud
nuvujak - two clouds
nuvujait - three or more clouds
```
80
Some languages like Korean do not mark grammatical _ on nouns at all
number
81
Other types of agreement are observed in languages, such as verbal forms having to agree with the subject in _
gender
| e.g., Lei e andatA a Palermo
82
Is grammatical gender an arbitrary system of classification?
definitely
83
The morphological form of an expression does not/have consequences for its syntactic properties
DOES!
84
morphology and syntax are often seen as tightly related components of grammar, and are often referred to jointly as
morphosyntax
85
Certain groups of expressions within a larger phrase can form a syntactic unit known as a
syntactic constituent
86
The syntactic constituents of a phrasal expression are
the smaller expressionsn out of which the phrase was constructed
e.g., on the desk
87
The words in a syntactic constituent can form to act as a(n)
adjunct
| e.g., Sally went to France in July
88
Is "on the desk" in "Theh cat was sleeping on the desk" a constituent?
yes
89
Is "sleeping on the desk" in "the cat was sleeping on the desk a constituent?
yes
90
A kind of sentece in which some constituent is displaced (or moved) to the lefft is known as a
cleft
91
T or F: i.e. if you try to move some expression that does not form a constituent, the cleft will NOT be grammatical
T
e.g., It was ON THE DESK that the cat was sleeping
vs.
The cat was sleeping ON THE DESK
92
The cleft test will/not work for all kinds of constituents
will not
| e.g., *it was sleeping ont he desk that the cat was
93
The final constituency test is _, involving replacing a constituent with a single word (or simple phase)
substitution
94
If you can replace the string of words you are testing with one word and the result is the
constituent
95
The best words to use for the substitution test are
pro-forms
96
Pronouns are the most familiar _, but there are others as well
pro-forms
97
Pro-forms include pronouns and even pro-
verbs
e.g., do; be; have
She was sleeping on the desk
98
Is "on the" in "The cat was sleeping on the desk" a constituent?
no
| *the cat was sleeping (it/there/then/such/do so) desk
99
Constituency tests are a useful tool for discovering the _ constituents of a sentence, and they are/not perfectly reliable
syntactic
| not
100
A syntactic category consists of a
set of expressions that have very similar syntactic properties, they have the same word order and co-occurrence requirements
101
When two expressions have similar _ properties, they are usually interchangeable in a sentence; you can substitute them for one another and still have a
grammatical sentence
102
When when expressions have similar syntactic properties, and can occur in almost all the same syntactic environments, they are considered having the same
syntactic distribution
e.g., Sally likes the cat
vs
Sally likes fluffy
103
Are fluffy and cat interchangeable? Why or why not?
no, and so they do not belong to the same syntactic category
104
Expressions do not belong to a given syntactic _ by virtue of their morphological or semantic properties. Rather, it is because of their syntactic _
category
| properties
105
Syntactic categories are based on a _ system
classification
106
We cannot distinguish syntactic categories based on their _ properties
morphological proeprties
| e.g., sleep, tell, destroy, and devour are in the same category, but do not comprose a USEFUL syntacti category
107
If we want to categorize expressions of a language syntactically, we have to take into account their _ _, not their _, _ properties, or what they sound like
syntactic
not meaning
not morphological properties
108
What is the highest syntactic category in English?
a sentence
109
What denounces a senstence in syntactic categorization?
S
110
What is under S (one of)?
NP
noun phrase
e.g., if the phrase can be replaced with a pronoun and the result is a rammatical sentence, then it is an NP, whereas if it wasas ungrammatical it is not
e.g., Is Fluffy in Fluffy was sleep on the desk an NP?
Yes, Fluffy/she was sleeping on the desk
e.g., *Is cat in The cat was sleeping on the desk an NP? N
No. The CAT was sleeping on the desk *The SHE was sleeping on the desk
111
expressions such as desk and cat belong to the syntactic category of _
nouns (N)
112
How do N and NP syntactic categories differ?
Ns can co-occur with determiners (Det) like the, whereas NPs cannot
e.g., THE CAT was sleeping on the desk - The cat is an N because of the detemriner
113
What type of nouns are cat or desk also known as? defined as being able to be counted
count nouns
114
What are mass nouns?
nouns that cannot (easily) be counted and cannot normally be pluralized
e. g., advice is a mass noun
* two advices
115
Do mass nouns need a determiner?
no, since they can also be replaced with a pronoun
| e.g., ADVICE can be helpful / IT can be helpful
116
What kind of determiners are:
| this, that, these, those?
demonstrative
117
What kind of determiners are:
| my, your, his, her, our, etc.?
possessive
118
What kind of determiners are: a, some, the, every, all, few, most, some etc.?
quantificational determiners
119
Why is "some" a determiner?
it is any expression that can be combined with a noun to its right to form an expression of a category NP therefore some works
e.g., Some cats like... - NP
120
What else uses a determiner in syntactical categorizeation?
ATTRIBUTIVE adjectives
| e.g., Sally likes THE CUTE GRAY CAT / Sally likes FLUFFY
121
What are attributive adjectives?
expressions that can occur immediately to the left of a noun, with the resulting expression having the same distribution as a plain noun
122
What is another second-highest syntactic category
verb phrase (VP)
123
When can a verb phrase occur in a sentence?
left of the NP it's a regular sentence, whereas right of the NP makes it the subject of the sentence
e.g., Sally GAVE BOB SOME MONEY / VP
124
Verbs that require no complements are known as
intransitive verbs
e.g., slept (VP, just needs an N) vs. liked (VP, requiring an NP complement)
such as "Sally liked the cat", vs. *"Sally liked"
125
What verbs require a complement of category S to form a VP?
sentential complement verbs
| e.g. Sally thought BOB LIKED HER / complement S
126
Many expressions that can occur in a verb phrase as adjuncts are of the category _
adverb
| e.g., Sally wrote the letter CAREFULLY / adverb
127
any expression that consists of a VP followed by an adverb has the same distribution as a _
VP
| e.g., Sally WROTE THE LETTER CAREFULLY / VP (incl an adverb)
128
What are adverbs also known as?
VP adjuncts (you can't have the category V, but can have the category Adv)
129
What are adjectives also known as?
N adjuncts (NP)
130
What is another VP adjunct often used?
PP prepositional phrase, which is a preposition and a noun phrase
e.g., Sally wrote the letter WITH A PEN / PP
131
What are these examples of:
| down, on, with, in, over, under, for, from, of, and at?
prepositions
132
PP occur _ a noun/phrase
AFTER
133
What does N require?
a determiner to its LEFT
| THE dog
134
What does Det require?
occur after the noun to form an NP
135
How is a simplified grammar created?
using lexicon, phrase structure rules,
136
What is lexicon?
a representaton of lexical expressions and their syntactic properties ; tells us whuch syntactic category a lexical expression belongs to
e.g.., the dog ate the mouse (NP, VP)
137
What captures patterns of syntactic combos?
phrase structure rules
138
What is the display of lexical expressions using phrase structure rules called?
```
a phrase structure tree
e.g., Fluffy slept
S
- NP
- Fluffy
- VP
- slept
```
139
What does a noun phrase consist of?
```
Det + (Adj) + N
e.g., The fluffy cat slept
S
- NP
- Det
- the
- N
- Adj
- fluffy
- N
- cat
- VP
- slept
```
140
What composes a VP?
VP = TV/DTV + NP; = SV + S; = DTV + NP + NP
141
What is the phrase structure tree for "Sally gave Bob this dog"?
```
Sally gave Bob this dog
S
- NP
- Sally
- VP
- DTV
- gave
- NP
- Bob
- NP
- Det
- this
- N
- dog
```
142
What is a PP composed of?
P + NP
143
What is a linguistic expression?
a piece of language that has a certain form, a certain meaning, and certain syntactic properties
144
What is the linguistic expression's form?
the sequence of sounds associated with a word or a sequence of words
145
Linguistic forms can be _, which means that they can correspond to more than one distinct expression
ambiguous
e.g., Sally works at a BANK, downtown
vs.
There is a bike path along the east BANK, of the Olentangy River
146
Bank in reference to a river, and bank in reference to a financial institution, have the same form but different _ _
syntactic properties
147
What are types of ambiguity?
where a single (phonological) word corresponds to distinct expressions that differ in meaning, syntactic properties or both
148
What are types of ambiguity referred to as?
lexical ambiguity
| e.g., We LOVE (VERB) Fluffy vs Our LOVE (NOUN) for Fluffy will never die
149
What is another name for lexical ambiguity?
homophony
| e.g., Sally has a FAST (ADJ) car vs Sally walks FAST (ADV)
150
What is structural ambiguity?
when parts of a sentence can be interpreted using different syntactical categories within a phrase structure tree
e.g., Sandy said Tom WOULD BE HERE YESTERDAY (VP) vs Sandy said Tom would be here, YESTERDAY
151
What two ways can we represent the phrase "The cop saw the man with the binoculars"?
S - NP - Det (the)
- N (cop)
- VP - VP - TV - saw
- NP
- Det (the)
- N (man)
- PP
- P (with)
- NP
- Det (the)
- N (binoculars)
(means the cop was using binoculars and saw the man)
152
In the phrase "the copsaw the man with the binoculars" how can you use the phrase structure tree to show that the man was wearing binoculars, and was seen by the cop?
S
- NP
- Det (the)
- N (cop)
- VP
- TV (saw)
- NP
- Det (the)
- NP
- N (man)
- PP
- P (with)
- NP
- Det (the)
- N (binoculars)
153
What is semantics?
a subfield of linguistics that studies meaning and how expressions convey meanings
154
What can we subdivide semantics into?
lexical and compositional
155
what is lexical semantics?
deals with the meanings of words and other lexical expressions, including the meaning relationships among them
156
What are compositional semantics?
concerned with phrasal meanings and how phrasal meanings are assembled
157
What are two aspects of linguistic meaning?
sense and reference
158
What is the sense of an expression?
some kind of mental representation of its meaning, or some kind of concept
e.g., "cat" can bring up images of a lot of things related to cats, and which are packaged into this mental representations
159
The particular entities in the world to which some expression refers are called its
referents
| e.g., Sebastian, Herbie are references of the expression "cat"
160
What are the referents for "the queen of the US"?
trick question. it doesn't make sense, so there aren't any referents
161
What is another way to confirm something is a referent?
if it can perfectly replace it in another sentence
e.g. The Olympics were in the most populous country in the world vs He was born in China (the same sense, but different referent)
162
dictionary-style definitions are the most or least effective way to represent meaning?
the least, because they are cyclical
e.g., deity = being or having the nature of a divinity = another definition sometimes using the original word (deity) as an explanation
163
mental image definitions are the most or least effective way to represent meaning
it's effective because they already represent our comprehension, although they can differ from one another
164
The default mental image of a word is the
prototype
165
the best form of a word's meaning is its
usage
166
word reference requires
exactness
| e.g., my car = not a Toyota Echo, but the red Toyota Echo product number _, made in _
167
What is hyponymy?
one thing that always assume the other, therefore the more specific one is a hyponym of the more general one
e.g., Fluffy is a Ragdoll, therefore Fluffy is a cat (Ragdolls are cats, therefore Fluffy's a cat; Ragdoll is a hyponym (below) of cat)
168
How do we create a visual representation of a hyponymous relationship?
circles
| e.g., Fluffy ) Ragdoll ) Cat)
169
What is a hypernym?
that which is more general than specific for meaning
| e.g., Fluffy is a RAgdoll, therefore Fluffy is a cat; Ragdolls are cats, therefore cat is a hypernym (above) of Ragdoll
170
Can synonyms have different senses?
yes, but they need to have similarities
| e.g., quickly vs fast
171
What is another name for antonyms?
```
complementary pairs (either/or)
e.g., married/unmarried
```
172
Other than complementary pairs, what is another version of antonyms?
on a continuum (more or less than), or gradable pairs
| e.g., wet/dry
173
What is the third type of antonym?
reverses
| e.g., movement that "undoes" the other, and vice-versa, such as expand/contract
174
What is the fourth type of antonym?
converses
e. g., having opposing points of view or sides of a spectrum
e. g., lend vs borrow
175
What is a truth value?
a proposition that can be true or false, and the ability to be true or false is the ability to have a truth value
176
Can a proposition be false?
absolutely
177
What are the conditions that would have to hold in the world in under for some proposition to be true?
truth conditions
178
What is entailment?
evaluating truth conditions in a sentence to see if they are true or false
e.g., All dogs barks, therefore Sally's dog barks
179
When two propositions refer to each other, what is that called?
mutual entailment
| e.g., I have a sister vs. Cheryl has a sister.
180
When two propositions negate the other, what are they referred to as?
incompatible
181
What is compositional semantics?
putting meanings together
182
The meaning of a sentence (or any other multi-word expression) is a function of the meanings of the words it contains and the way in which these words are syntactically combined
principle of compositionality
183
The principle of compositionality irelates to the design of _
productivity - the greater the number of combinations of words and their meanings creates an infinite number of compositions
184
When words are frequired to be in a certain order, they are referred to as
compositional
185
What is a phrase with a non-lexical meaning?
an idiom
| e.g., "kick the bucket" = die
186
When combining an adjective with nouns, we refer to their meaning as
pure intersection
| e.g., green sweaters = everything that's green + every sweater - non-green sweaters
187
When combining adjectives and nouns, what does we refer to when the meaning is according to the type of noun it is?
relative intersection
| e.g., tall + giraffe = a taller-than-normal giraffe, which is naturally tall
188
What is another type of relative intersection?
subsective intersection
189
What are non-intersection adjectives?
those that do not require a reference
| e.g., alleged thief
190
When an adjective completely negatives the noun, what is that referred to as?
an anti-intersection
| e.g., fake Picasso
191
What is pragmatics
the study of language used in conversation
192
what is a sentence?
a phrasal expression that expresses some (complete) idea
193
What is an utterance?
whenever a person speaks or signs a sentence, making it an event
e.g., if two people say the same sentence, it is two utterances, but still one sentence
194
What does an utterance have that a sentence doesn't?
context
195
What is a deictic?
a placeholder of words that don't inherently refer to something specific. These words' meanings are always determined by the context in which they are uttered
e.g., Can you take the trash out? one sentence, multiple meanings
196
What has preceded a particular utterance in a discourse?
linguistic context, made up of all sentences that have been uttered in a discourse leading up to the utterance in question
197
What is situational context?
gives info about the world around us even if they have not mentioned it before in the discourse
e.g., saying it smells before you see your friend with a bag of weed
198
What kindn of context includes information about the relationships between people who are speaking and what their roles are?
social context
| e.g., determining specific language for your Baba vs a teacher, etc
199
What is felicity?
appropriateness relative to a context
200
when is an utterance felicitous?
when it is situationally appropriate, and is appropriate relative to the context in which it is uttered
201
What is used when an utterance is infelicitous
(whereas * refers to ungrammaticality)
202
Is felicity dependent on context?
yes!
203
What is Grice's cooperative principle?
the basic assumption underlying conversation is the understanding that what one says is intended to contribute to the purposes of the conversation (an intent to be cooperative)
204
What is the cooperative principle based upon?
preventing meaningless discourse by using conversatonal maxims which guide the conversational interactions of both speakers and hearers
205
What type of utterances are ones that conform to Grice's maxims?
felicitous
206
What maxim addresses our expectations of honesty in conversation?
maxim of quality
207
What is the maxim of quality hindered by?
if the speaker randomly mixes lies with the truth, or if the hearer assumes that anything the speaker says is likely to be a lie
208
What are the two maxims of quality?
do not say what you believe is false
do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence
quality -- Trump
209
What is the simplest of maxims?
that of relevance
210
What does making your contribution as informative as is required, as well as do not mamke your contributin more informative than is equired ,maxims of?
quantity
211
The maxims of _ differ critically from the other sets of maxims since the others have to do with the info that a speaker is expected to give or not, whereas this refers to how it is presented
maxim of manner
212
What is the other rule to maxim of manner?
- avoid obscurity of expression
- avoid ambiguity
- be orderly
be brief!
213
Avoid use of _ when avoiding obscurity of expression
jargon
214
What is flouting a maxim?
presenting an utterance without giving a literal example, instead creating a often sarcastic one
215
What kind of maxim is flouted in the phd reference letter example?
he asked me to write a letter. he is polite, dressed, and on-time
quantity
216
People draw inferences from what others say based on the assumption that speakers are _
adhering to the cooperative principle
217
What is this a good example of
Is Jamie dating anyone these days?
Well, she goes to Cleveland every weekend
an implication
218
What kind of maxim is this implicature?
Have you done your homework for all of your classes yet?
I've finished my history homework
maxim of quantity
219
If you want a situation to be orderly, what maxim does this imply?
the maxim of manner
220
If we imply that we have evidence, what maxim is this using?
maxim of quality
221
```
What are these examples of?
assertion
question
request
order
promise
threat
```
speech acts
222
What functions in conveyingn information?
an assertion
223
What functions in eliciting info?
a question
224
What elicits action or information?
a request
225
What is an order?
a demand of action
226
What is a promise
it commits the speaker to an action
227
What is a threat?
commits the speaker to an action that the hearer does not want
228
What type of felicity conditions are these fore:
speaker believes actions has not yet been done
speaker want the action done
speaker believes that the hearer is able to do the action
speaker believes that the hearer may be willing to do things of that sort for the speaker
felicity conditions for requests
229
what is an example of a felicity condition for questions?
the speaker...
does not want some piece of info about something
wants to know that info about something
believes that the hearer may be able to supply the info
230
What is a performative verb and how is it used in a speech act?
the particular action named by the verb is accomplished in the performance of the speech act itself
e.g., "I repeat: ..."
231
What is the structure and formation of phrases and sentences known as?
syntax
232
What is syntax similar to, in terms of hierarchical structure, order, and meaning?
morphology
233
What is missing of the list of syntactic knowledge?
- grammaticality judgments
- word order
- syntactic constituents and catgories
- hierarchical structure
- phrase structure rules
- structural ambiguity
- co-occurrence: argument vs adjunct, agreement
234
What is defined as a requirement that x co-occur with y, specific to verbs and nouns?
co-occurrence
| e.g., The boy rested (subject, argument) vs. The boy ate/*devoured (objected, argument)
235
What is an adjunct?
an OPTIONAL element in syntax
| e.g., sally seemed happy ON TUESDAY
236
What is an argument?
required by the verb or noun
| e.g., John devoured A PIZZA
237
What does an argument imply?
obligatoriness
ordering, and..?
uniqueness
238
Morphological requirements between a verb and its subject argument or a noun and its determiner require co-occurrence _
agreement
239
what must be present in a co-occurrence agreement?
must agree in features such as person, number, and gender
240
What is an example of a subject-verb agreement?
John likes fried tomatoes
vs.
* I likeS fried tomatoes
241
What is an example of a determiner noun agreement?
a girl sang
vs.
* a girlS sang
242
Sentences have hierarchical structure, and at each level words are organized into units, called
constituents
243
Constituents reveal how sentences are
structured
244
What are some constituents in these sentences?
The zookeeper (subject) fixed (verb) the lion's cage (object)
245
What is missing for the list of constituency tests?
question-answer
topicalization
pro-form substitution
clefting
246
The cat was sleeping on the desk. What are these forms an example of?
- on the desk
- sleeping on the desk
- the cat
- on the
- was sleeping on
question-answer constituents (constituency test)
247
Constients can be _ to the beginning of a sentence
clefted
e.g., The cat was sleeping on the desk
-
On the desk the cat was sleeping
248
Constituents can be moved to the beginning fo the sentence as a topic, which an example of the _ constituency test
topicalization
e.g., Morris really loves green bananas
vs.
GREEN BANANAS, Morris really loves _
249
Constituents can be replaced by _ (pronouns, pro-verbs)
pro-forms, care of pro-form constituency testing
| e.g., the cat was sleeping on the desk
250
Judgments on whether a sentence is well-formed or ill-formed is known as
grammaticality judgment
251
What do grammaticality judgments recognize?
violations of syntactic rules
252
what do you put an asterisk in front of?
an ungrammatical phrase/sentence
253
Why is The boy found ungrammatical?
because to find requires an object
254
Why is Disa slept the baby ungrammatical?
because sleep cannot have an object
255
Why is John wants Robert to be a gentleman, and John wants to be a gentleman grammatical?
want may or may not have an object
256
Why are the sentences ungrammatical?
John tries Robert to be a gentleman
John tries to be a gentleman
try cannot have an object
257
What is a missing property of grammaticality judgments?
shared by all speakers of a language
can apply to sentences never heard before
not dependent on meaning of sentence
not dependent on truth of sentence
not based on explicit instruction
258
Every _ belongs to a lexical category
word
259
```
What is the missing lexical category?
N
V
Adj
Adv
Det
P
Pron
Conj
```
(Aux)iliary verb
260
Words belonging to the same lexical category function in the _ way
same
| e.g., I want to read a book
261
What is the criteria for identifying nouns missing?
- refer to real, imaginary, and abstract things, substances, pople, places, actions, events
- can occur with the, these...
- can be modified by adjectives
if they can be counted, may form plural by adding -s
262
What is a missing criteria for verbs as a lexical category?
- refer to actions, events, processes, states of being
- express manner with partic forms: -ing, -ed, -en
- can occur with auxiliaries
- can be modified by adverbs
- express time with particular forms -ed, or even sing to sang, etc.
263
What is a missing criteria for identifying adjectives?
describe the things, ideas, etc. that nouns refer to
can have superlative forms (long-est)
can be modified by degree words (very, too)
can have comparative forms (long-er)
264
What is the missing criteria for identifying adverbs?
express manner, describe attitude or judgment of speaker, or indicate temporal frequency
can have comparative forms (more quickly)
can have superlative forms (most quickly)
can be modified by degree words (very, too)
265
What are defined as words or expressions belonging to the same syntactic category function in the same way, i.e., have the same syntactic distribution
syntactic categories
| e.g., nP, VP, PP, S
266
```
What are these phrases examples of?
__ took a nap on the sofa.
__ is sleeping.
Sally bought it for __.
Christina ate __.
Molly gave her brother __.
```
NP noun phrases
267
```
What are these phrases examples of?
They do not __ after 7pm.
Where did you __?
Sally pretended to __.
It’s important to __.
```
VP verb phrases
268
What are these phrases examples of
John walked INTO THE CLASSROOM.
Mary sat ON A GREEN CHAIR.
The cat climbed UP A TREE.
PP
269
What is required in a verb phrase?
subject + predicate
270
What is a predicate, and when is it used?
it refers to what the subject did, and follows a verb in english
271
When looking at the asymmetry between subject and object in verb phrases, which is closer: subject or object?
object is closer to the verb
272
What are these phrases examples of?
the boy LAUGHED
the cat CHASED A RED BIRD
vp
273
What syntactical categories are used in the phrase:
| put the car in the garage
V (put) NP (the car) PP (in the garage)
274
What syntactical categories are used in the phrase:
| gave Marie a present
NP (gave) NP (Marie) NP (a present)
275
What are these examples of?
- determine correct combinationso f syntactic categories
part of syntactic knowledge
not taught
accessed through grammaticality judgments
phrase structure rules
276
What are the parts of NP?
NP -> (Det) (Adj) N (PP)
277
What are the parts of PP?
PP -> P NP
278
What are the parts of VP?
VP -> V (NP) (NP) (Adv) (PP) (Adv)
OR
VP -> V S
279
What are the parts of S?
S -> NP (Aux) (not) VP
| e.g., Jason will not walk to school
280
What is the phrase structure of this phrase:
| THE BOY AND THE GIRL ran up the hill
NP
281
What is the phrase structure of this phrase:
| a large student from Hawaii
Det
Adj
N
PP - P NP - N
282
What is the phrase structure of this phrase: from Hawaii
PP - P NP - N
283
What is the phrase structure of this phrase: carries a large chihuahua in her purse
V
| NP - Det Adj N PP - P NP
284
What is this phrase an example of:
| THE BOY !AND! THE GIRL ran up the hill
NP -> NP Conj NP
285
What is this phrase an example of:John will eat his lunch and go to class
VP -> VP Conj VP
286
What is this phrase an example of:
| Glen went down the stairs and out the door
PP -> PP Conj PP
287
What is this phrase an example of:
| John ran up the stairs and Mary ran down the hall
S -> S Conj S
288
What is this phrase rule for?
| X -> X Conj X
Coordination
289
For coordination, X =/
X Conj Y
290
For coordination, NP =/
NP Conj Y
291
What is a phrase structure tree for:
a man from Mars
a book about shoes
the cookies on the table
NP -> Det N PP - NP - N
292
What is a phrase structure tree for:
| the foolish jester
NP
- Det - the
- Adj - foolish
- N - jester
293
What is a phrase structure tree for: a book about plants
NP
- Det - a
- N - book
- PP
- P - about
- NP - N - plants
294
What is a phrase structure tree for:
| the cookies on the table
NP
- Det - the
- N - cookies
- PP
- P - on
- NP
- Det - the
- N - table
295
What is a phrase structure tree for:
| won the game
VP
- V - won
- NP
- Det - the
- N - game
296
Phrase structure trees are a good way to visually represent word _ and word _
structure
| order
297
What is a phrase structure tree for:
| the squirrel ate an apple
```
the squirrel ate an apple
S
- NP (subject)
- det - the
- N - squirrel
- BP (predicate)
- V - ate
- NP
- Det - an
- N - apple
```
298
What is a phrase structure tree for:
| the us came quickly
S
- NP
- Det - the
- N - bus
- VP
- V - came
- Adv - quickly
299
What is a phrase structure tree for:
| the boy walked into the cabin
```
S
- NP
- Det - the
- N - boy
- VP
- V - walked
- PP
P - into
- NP
- det - the
- N - cabin
```
300
What is a phrase structure tree for:
| a pitcher of juice spilled on the counter
S
- NP
- Det - a
- N - pitcher
- P - of
- N - juice
- VP
- V - spilled
- PP
- P - on
- det - the
- N - counter
301
What is a phrase structure tree for: Kelly said Susan ran around the block
S
- NP
- N - Kelly
- VP
- V - said
- S
- NP
- N - Sharon
- V - ran
- PP
- P - around
- Det - the
- N - block
302
What defines the same word order, but a different constituent structure?
structural ambiguity
e.g.,
Pat saw a man with binoculars
(did Pat have the binoculars, or did the man?)
303
What is the conjoined sentence an example of?
| sleepy dogs and cats
structural ambiguity
| are the dogs just sleepy or are the dogs and cats both sleepy?
304
How would you present this sentence
| sleepy dogs and cats, with only the dogs being sleepy?
NP
- NP
- Adj - sleepy
- N - dogs
- Conj - and
- NP
- N - cats
305
What is a phrase structure tree for: sleepy dogs and cats, with both being sleepy?
NP
- Adj - sleepy
- NP
- N - dogs
- conj - and
- N - cats
306
What is a phrase structure tree for:
| You can enjoy a gourmet meal in your sweatpants
S
- NP
- N - you
- Aux - can
- VP
- v - enjoy
- NP
- Det - a
- Adj - gourmet
- N - meal
- PP
- P - in
- NP
- Det - your
- N - sweatpants
307
What is a phrase structure tree for:
| You can enjoy a gourmet meal in your sweatpants
S
- NP
- N - you
- Aux - can
- VP
- V - enjoy
- NP
- Det - a
- Adj - gourmet
- N - meal
- PP
- P - in
- Det - your
- N - sweatpants
308
Word order typology for English is
S-V-O, like 35% of the world's languages
309
What is typology?
ways in which grammars of different languages are similar and different
310
What is SOV the word order for?
Japanese, Turkish (44% or most languages)
311
What is VSO the word order for?
Irish, Arabic (19%)
312
What is VOS the word order for?
Fijian, Malagasy (2%)
313
OSV, OVS are used
very rarely
314
What kind of headedness if the phrase "fleur blanche"?
head-initial (french)
315
What kind of headedness if the phrase "eat cookies"?
head-initial
316
What kind of headedness if the phrase "walk to school"?
head-initial
317
What kind of headedness if the phrase "to school"?
head-initial
318
What kind of headedness if the phrase "from the concert"?
head-initial
319
What kind of headedness if the phrase "apple ate"?
head-final
320
What kind of headedness if the phrase "village to"?
head-final
321
What kind of headedness if the phrase "the boy"
head-final
322
What kind of headedness if the phrase "small dogs"
head-final
323
Are phrase structures similar or different for word order?
```
the same
e.g., S-v-o
s
- np - s
- vp
- v
- np - o
s - o - v
s
- NP - s
- VP
- np - o
- v
```
324
Variations in word order are captured at the _ level
lowest, which explains why the same phrase structure is used
325
All phrase structure rules have phrases that include a _
head
326
Languages may differ in order of _ within the phrase according to variation in phrase structure rules
elements
327
What does Japanese typically use for headedness?
head-final
328
what does english typically use for headedness?
head-initial and head-final
329
What is involved with movement/transformations?
related sentences that involve wh-words:
| who, what, where, when, why, how
330
Finish the phrase: movements in related sentences are based upon
syntax
331
What does movement mean?
you can move items around in a sentence to answer a questio nfrom the initial sentence
e.g., Mary will go to school at noon
=
Will Mary go to school at noon?
332
Movements are associated with _ questions, whereas transformations are associated with _ questions
yes/no
| wh-word
333
```
What is a missing factor of semantic knowledge?
meaningful and meaningless
ambiguity
same meaning
opposite meanings
reference to objects
entailments
```
truth conditions
334
When is ambiguity found in semantics
when a word has two meanings, and a sentence has two meanings
335
What are truth conditions?
they are sentences that do not depen on additional information to be true; the statement is answered as true or false, rather than something else
336
What are entailments?
one phrase precedes another which determines meaning
| e.g., Nina has a poodle, therefore Nina has a dog (wouldn't work the other way around)
337
What is a aspect of lexicon semantics?
sense and reference
word relations
semantic features
338
What is a missing factor of lexicon semantics?
lexicon
aspects
shared by all speakers (in general usage)
339
One theory of meaning in relation to the world, vs one theory of meaning as a mental representation. What am I defining?
sense and reference, factors of lexicon semantics
340
When words refer to entities in the real world, they have
reference (to a particular object or set of objects)
| e.g., car = batmobile (one specific vehicle)
341
Does meaning equal reference? Why or why not?
No, because words can have meaning but they can refer to things aren't real
e.g., Santa Claus
342
What is a missing reason that meaning doesn't equal reference?
- some meanings aren't real (e.g., unicorns)
- words can reference the same meaning, but can't be interchanged (PM vs Justin Trudeau)
we can know the meaning of a word without knowing all the referents of that word
e.g., house = home, place I live, etc. (know meaning but don't know all possible referents)
343
What does meaning involve more than just reference?
sense
344
The meaning in our mind, concepts a word evokes, independent of real world. What am I defining?
sense
| e.g., man in photo is Justin Trudeau, PM, Leader of Liberal Party, etc.
345
What is a way to remember sense in semantics?
it gives you the sense of someone (or the idea) which refers to a particular person (not interchangeable
346
Does sense = reference?
no
347
What is an example of sense but no referents?
no (ref) sense
| prince of Canada
348
What is an example of same referent, but many senses?
sense and same referents - Justin Trudeau
349
ex of know sense, but don't know all referents
who are all the past Prime Ministers?
350
What is defined as relying on knowledge of language?
sense
351
does mental image refer to sense or reciprocity?
no
352
What is meaning?
a semantic linguistic approach to a philosophical question
353
Does meaning = reference?
no
354
What does meaning = ?
sense
355
Is "meaning in our mind" the same as a dictionary definition or a mental image?
nope
356
What is a hyponym?
a word in a word relation that belongs under the umbrella of a larger entity
e.g., poodle is a hyponym for dog
357
What is a hypernym?
a word in a word relation that belongs in a semantic umbrella that is above a sub-entity e.g., dog is a hypernym of poodle
358
What are synonyms?
words that have the same meaning, but can be context-dependent
e.g., couch vs sofa
I have a _bed
359
Is complete synonymy rare? Why or why not?
yes, because to have a complete synonym would be redundant and ineffectual
360
What is more important: words with the same referents or words with the same meaning?
words with the same referents
361
What is a missing dependent for choice of word?
geographic region
social factors
age
connotations (shades of meaning)
362
What refers to meainngs related, but contrast in some way?
antonyms
363
```
What is a missing type of antonym category?
complementary pairs (married/unmarried), gradable pairs (old/young), reverses (inside/outside)
```
converses (a relationship, such as lend/borrow)
ANTONYM: CGRC
364
A word that has two or more related meanings is referred to as
polysemy (many meanings)
| e.g., bright = shining, intelligent
365
What is a missing semantic feature?
clarify word relations
part of conceptual meaning of words
features or properties
366
What are semantic classes?
subsections like dog vs puppy, or mother vs daught, etc.
367
Our knowledge of _ _ and rules of _ restrictions allows us to use words correctly
semantic features
| restrictions
368
What is a semantically meaningless sentence?
John poured the cat
| The table ate an apple
369
What is a missing piece of evidence for semantic features?
not directly observable
must be inferred
evidence: speech errors and speech disorders
370
What is an example of a word substitution speech error?
*bridge of the neck (nose)
371
What is an example of an aphasic phrase?
*I going to have a seat at the chair (table) - cue is fine, but performance is not accurate (implies that person understands the situation but has mistaken the specific word)
372
What are semantic relations between an NP and V?
thematic roles
| e.g., John ("follower", "agent of action") followed Mary ("followee" "theme of action")
373
What is needed for thematic roles?
agent
theme
goal
374
What is a doer of action in thematic roles?
```
an agent (at the beginning)
e.g., JOHN left
```
375
What is an an undergoer of action in thematic roles?
theme
| e.g., Mary kicked THE BALL
376
What is the endpoint of change of location or possession in thematic roles?
a goal
| e.g., John sold the book to MARY
377
What is the missing part of thematic roles?
experiencer
instrument
source - origin of action or change
| e.g., John borrowed a book from MARY
378
What is an experiencer in thematic roles?
one receiving sensory input
| e.g., JOHN felt happy
379
What is an instrument in thematic roles?
means used to accomplish action
| e.g., John carved with a DULL KNIFE
380
What are common semantic errors, and when are they typically used?
overextension and underextension in language acquisition
381
Overextensions are
an incomplete definition of the word
| e.g., dogs are dogs, horses, cows
382
What do overextensons compensate for?
limited vocab
383
What is more common in production than comprehension?
overextensions
e.g., comprehension test with cows, horses and dogs had kids identify cows, but could not produe the word cow whenjust looking at pictures of animals
384
What are underextensions?
objects that refer to a smaller set
| e.g., kitty = Sebastian (rather than all cats)
385
when do underextensions occur, and why?
in young and older children, because they focus on prototypes as opposed to general ideas
386
Are relational terms easy to grasp for children?
no = small, far away
387
What is defined as sentence meaning?
compositional semantics
388
```
What is a missing factor of semantic knowledge?
proposition
truth
ambiguity
compositionality
```
relations - entailment, synonymy, contradiction
389
What do truth values require?
universal understanding as true or false, not personally relevant
e.g., the queen of England is sleeping = she could be, but not necessarily at this moment
390
What doe sthe phrase "The Queen of England is sleeping" refer to ?
truth condition - the sentence could be true, but don't know absolutely
391
What is a missing form of sentence relations?
entailment
synonymy
contradiction
392
If A is true, then B is true. What does this represent?
entailment
| e.g., Nancy has a poodle (hyponymy), therefore Nancy has a dog (hypernymy)
393
What is defined as a circular agreement, or a paraphrase, or a mutual entailment (A entails B which entails A...)
synonymy
| e.g., I have a sister, I have a female sibling
394
What implies incompatibility, or A and B can't both be true or false?
contradiction
| e.g., All dogs bark vs no dogs bark
395
What kind of ambiguity is this?
| Jan cannot bear children
lexical
| bear = give birth/animal
396
What kind of ambiguity is this? John saw a man with binoculars
structural
[man with binoculars]
[man] [John saw through binoculars]
397
Meaning is built both on words and _ _ = compositionality
syntactic structure
398
Meaning is built both on words and syntactic structure =
compositionality
399
_ is built both on words and syntactic structure compositionality
meaning
400
To know the meaning of a sentence, you need to know the meanings of the individual words, and the truth codndition of the sentence. What is this a defintion of?
compositionality
401
What are syntactic structure and truth conditions a part of?
compositionality
402
Does word order matter in compositionality?
hell yeah
e.g.,
The bride was carried by the groom vs.
the groom was carried by the bride
403
the meaning of a sentence is predictable from the meanings of words and how they're combined. What is this defining?
compositionality
404
What is the deal with compositionality and truth conditions?
words individually do not make a truth value or condition, but a phrase can
e.g., John = no particular meaning
vs.
John eats = truth condition
405
Does a sentence refer to a specific object or a set of objects in compositionality?
no
406
What does a sentence express?
a proposition
407
what is a proposition known as in compositionality?
an assertion
408
What is a reference in sentence compositionality?
a truth condition
409
What is a formal way of looking at sentence meanings using logic?
sentence compositionality
410
```
What is the missing type of semantic combinations?
relative intersection (good food), non-intersection (fake money)
```
pure intersection
| e.g., green sweater = everything green + every sweater - non-green sweaters
411
What is an example of relative intersection in semantic combinations?
good food (vs bad food)
412
What is an example of non-intersection in the types of semantic combinations?
fake money (one negates the other)
413
What syntactic categories do intersection in semantic combinations use?
Adj + N
414
What example is good for remembering relative intersection
small cow
415
What is a non-intersective adjective, and what is an example?
an adjective that does NOT require a noun reference
| e.g., alleged thief
416
What is an anti-intersective adjective, and what is an example?
an adjective that CANNOT overlap with the noun rference)
| e.g., fake Picasso
417
do non- and anti-intersective adjectives use a noun referent?
nope
418
What is defined as a semantic rule that is not follwed using logic, or basically is nonsense?
anomaly
| e.g., Mrs. Doyle made cakes using cocaine
419
What is defined as a semantic rule that is a nonliteral interpretation, or an inferred association?
metaphor
| e.g., Dougall is a child
420
What is defined as a semantic rule that is a fixed phrase, with meaning that is not compositional and with NPs that do not refer to usual objets?
idioms
| e.g., kick the bucket
421
What else is a subdefinition of pragmatics?
language in context
sentence: abstract phrasal expression
utterance
422
What is a missing quality of an utterance?
- physical realization of sentence
- an event
- has context (time, place, volume, speaker)
- context affects meaning
felicity (appropriateness) - assoc with pragmatic language
423
What is felicity?
appropriateness (pragmatics)
424
What is defined as affecting meaning and felicity of utterance?
context
| e.g., getting a vague message to meet with Professor - in trouble? getting praise?
425
What is a missing type of context?
linguistic
situational
social
426
Does linguist context include all previous sentences in discourse?
yes
| e.g., Yes, I can
427
What else does linguistic context require?
| needs preceding discourse
sets topic, style, appropriateness, cohesiveness
428
What is defined as a situation in which a sentence is uttered?
situational context
| e.g., Mary is a good dance
429
What is situational context based on?
the nonlinguistic (extralingusistic) environment
430
Speakers, hearers, observers, belefs, physical environment, social situation and conversation refer to what type of context?
situation
| defined by the spea,ker, his/her experience, etc.
431
What is defined as relationships between speakers?
social context
432
Is social context a part of situational context?
yes
e.g., will you be at the meeting? - from a boss it implies that you should be there, whereas a colleague may just want to know if his/her other colleague actually will be attending
433
What is defined as having no inherent reference, since reference depends on situational context?
deixis (deictics)
| e.g., "he (who?) is there (where?) now (when?)"
434
What kind of deixis are there?
person
place
time
435
What are also known as rules of conversation?
maxims of conversation
436
What is defined as a part of our pragmatic knowledge, explains how we understand each other
followed with utterances that are felicitous, and is NOT followed by utterances that are inFELICITOUS
maxims of conversation (rules)
437
Who proposed the cooperative principle, or maxims of conversation?
H. Paul Grice, 1913-88 (British philosopher)
438
What is defined as a basic assumption underlying conversations, which speakers cooperate in furthering the purpose of a conversation?
the Cooperative Principle
439
What requires the observation of conversation rules, or maxims to avoid meaningless discourse?
Grice's Cooperative Principle
440
What are the 4 rules or maxims of Grice?
quality
relevance
quantity
manner
441
What requires implementation that varies across cultures, according to social rules?
Grice's maxims
442
Do not lie. Do not make claims that are false or lack adequate evidence. Expect honesty in conversation. What do these phrases imply?
the maxim of QUALITY
| Trump = maxim of quality
443
What maxim requires the speaker to be relevant, prevent random topic shifts, and allows us to make inferences?
maxim of relevance
e.g.,
What do you do for a living?
I like cake!
444
What suggests making your contribution as informative as is required (not more, not less)?
the maxim of quantity
e.g., Where do you live?
In Little Italy, off Preston Street
445
What is the MM rule?
the maxim of manner
446
What suggests being brief and orderly, and avoiding obscurity and ambiguity?
the maxim of manner
447
What suggests that rules about how information is presented, not convent
avoid jargon, complex structures, confusing ambiguity, wordines, unorganized sequences, and
advises one topic at a time, sequential order, and is concise?
maxim of manner
448
What are deliberate violations to achieve a purpose, like sarcasm?
flouting maxims
| e.g., he was regularly on time for classes
449
What would the answer "location, location, location" be flouting when asking about 3 most important things in real estate?
maxim of quantity (repetition for emphasis)
450
What maxim is being flouted in the sentence, "and I saw two squirrels when I drove by there today"?
relevance
451
What maxim is flouted in the sarcastic phrase, "that was really smart"?
quality
452
What is being flouted in the phrase "who's going to take the dog for a w-a-l-k this morning?"
maxim of manner
453
What does not include entailment, but is based on linguistic content and situational context?
implicatures
454
What does entailment include?
linguistic and semantic context
| e.g., all dogs bark, therefore we infer that Sally's dog barks
455
In the phrase, "is jane dating anyone thse days? well, she goes to Cleveland every weekend" implying the maxim...?
relevance
456
Where's the steak that you want me to BBQ?
do you see the guilty dog?
this implies
maxim of relevance
457
Have you finished all your homework?
I've ffinished my history homework
Maxim this implies is
maxim of quantity (not giving the whole picture)
458
We need someone to make a cake for the party
| I'll make my family's favourite chocolate cake!
implies maxim of quality - evidence that it was successful for a group of people before
459
What is a missing detail of implicatures?
allow us to be freer in ouru se of language
makes our conversations easier
we don't have to be totally logical,, provide every detail, and state the obvious
allow us to be less committeed to the truth of a proposition
460
Some sentences are difficult to just as being true or false. Why?
because they contain expressions that presuppose the existence of its referent/truth of its content
461
what is defined as an underlying assumption that must be satisfied for the statement to have a truth value?
presupposition
462
If discourse sows participants must believe that the presuposed info is true, then it is
satisfied
463
if a presupposition isn't satisfied then
a truth value gap exists / does not indicate the expression is based on truth (the existence of a referent or truth value)
464
when is an utterance infelicitous?
when a discourse with a presupposition is not satisfied
465
what qusetion does an unsatisfied presupposition produe?
wait, what?
466
What is an eample of a presupposition?
I'm sorry i was late to our meeting I had to take my pet giraffe to the vet
vs
I'm sorry I was late to our meetin. i have a pet giraffe, and it wasn't feeling well so i had to take it to the vet
the first sentence
| I"m sorry I was slate to our meeting. I had to take my pet giraffe to the vet
467
What are determiners, aspectual verbs of continuation or cessation and expressions of repetition examples of?
presupposition triggers
468
What is an example of a determiner presupposition trigger?
both
neither
e.g., both twins will go to Carleton
(#both triplets will go to carleton)
469
What are examples of aspectual verbs of continuation or cessation in presupposition triggers?
```
keep
continue
stop
finish
e.g., James kept reading the paper
```
470
What are examples of repetition in presupposition triggers?
```
another
return
re-examine
again
too
e.g., Linus returned to the pumpkin patch
```
471
When is an expression of repetition used in a presupposition trigger?
when an event has occurred previously
472
When are aspectual verbs of continuation or cessation used?
when a presupposition presents an event in progress
| e.g., I finished the paper
473
What is the presupposition trigger for expressions of repetition?
an event occurred previously
| e.g. Linus returned to the pumpkin patch
474
If S is true, then not-S is
false
| e.g., Sally'd dog barks is true, whereas Sally's dog doesn't bark is false
475
Unsatisfied presuppositions are true or false?
```
neither true or false, since there is a truth value gap
e.g.,
#The king of France is bald/not bald (nonfelicitous, and neither true or false)
```
476
Hearers accommodate presuppositions by accepting them as facts but only...
if plausible
| e.g., #I'm sorry I'm late. My pet giraffe was sick
477
Conversations commonly contain _ that the hearer doesn't know to be true. E.g.,
I"m sorry I'm late. My car broke down
presupposition (accommodation)
| Did your car break down?
478
What is a missing quality of a speech act?
act carried out through language
make assertions, elicit information, make requests, give orders, make promises, and make threats
you perform a speech act every time you utter a sentence
479
What is defined as a speech act that conveys info?
an assertion
480
What is defined as a speech act that elicts info?
question
481
What is defined as a speech act that elicits action or info
a request
482
What is defined as a speech act that demands action?
an order
483
What is defined as a speech act that commits the speaker to an action?
a promise
484
What is defined as a speech act that commits the speaker to an action that the hearer does not want?
a threat
485
_ are required by speech acts in particular contexts
felicity conditions
486
What are the qualities of felicity conditions with questions?
the speaker doesn't know the info
the speaker wants to know the info
the speaker believes the hearer has the info
487
What are the qualities of felicity conditions with requests?
the speaker believes action is not yet done
the speaker wants action to be done
the speaker believes the hearer may be willing to do it for the speaker
the speaker believes the hearer is able to do the action
488
What can be suspended in certain contexts?
| e.g., questions that suspend "speaker doesn't know the info" on tests, trivia games like Jeopardy
felicity conditions
489
What is defined as an action named by the verb is accomplished in the _ of the _ itself
performative speech acts
| performance of the speech act itself
490
_ denote purely linguistic actionsn
e.g,. I ASSERT that Jim is not here
I ASK again: what did yo do?
I BET you $5
performative verbs
491
What are defined as specialized group of _ verbs that change something about the world?
performative speech acts
| performative verbs
492
_ often have a felicity condition regarding the authority of the speaker
e.g., I hereby PRONOUNCE you husband and wife
I RESIGN!
performative speech acts
493
What are three conditions of performative speech acts?
subject is "I" or "we"
it is in the present tense
it matches the "hereby" test
e.g., I hereby elect...
We hereby suggest that...
494
What are the two types of speech acts (not performative)?
direct and indirect
495
"Can you?" would be associated with what speech act?
direct speech act
| e.g., Can you lift weights
496
"Would you?" would be associated with what speech act?
indirect speech act
| e.g., Would you upass the salt? (although you would use the word can, but as a nonliteral interpretation)
497
What types of speech acts are used when felicity conditions are violated and the response isn't literal?
indirect
498
What type of speech act is used with a performative vereb?
direct
499
When do we use the phrase "exactly that amount"?
baking, chemistry, money
500
When do we use the phrase "at least that amount"?
18 y.o. to enter
501
When do we use the phrase "at most that amount"?
elevator passenger weight
502
What kind of question is used when a lawyer asks a defendant, "have you stopped beating your wife"?
```
a presupposition
(it implies that the defendant in fact did beat her at one point)
```
503
What did linguist Charles Hockett suggest (1916-2000)?
described 9 features that identify a language (humans do all 9)
504
What is a missing design feature of language?
mode of comm (means): sounds, gestures
semanticity - signals have meaning or function
pragmatic function: useful purpose
interchangeability - can send and receive
cultural transmission - interaction with other users
arbitrariness - form and meaning
productivity - novel messages
displacement
discreteness
505
What are design features of language specific to humans?
displacement and productivity - creating novel messages
506
What type of design features of animal communication do baboons and skunks feature?
mode of communication
| e.g., vocal, visual-baboon, touch, odor-skunk, electricity-)
507
What type of design features of animal communication do animals use to find a food source, flee, etc.?
semanticity
508
What type of design features of animal communication do to eat, reproduce, and survive?
pragmatic function
509
If a dog barks, and then another dog barks after, and then the initial barks after that, what kind of animal communication is being shown?
interchangeability
510
What are killer whales' clicking and whistling examples of?
cultural transmission (particular to the specific whale pod, bird)
511
When a lizard changes colour, or a bee dance, what does this signify in animal comm?
arbitrariness
| why turn red?
512
What are bird songs or bee dances when using different combinations for animal comm?
discreteness
513
What are two features of communication that are NOT used by animals?
displacement and productivity
514
What is a missing claim of animal comm?
a complex and organized system
optimally in tune with survival requirements of each species
acquisition of comm systems result of genetic inheritance
| e.g., many animals develop full range of vocalizations typical of their species even when raised in isolation
515
What is a missing claim of animal comm?
little arbitrariness
stimulus-bound (occurs only when triggered)
limited in messages it can convey
| e.g., particularly due to limited productivity
516
When bees dance, it communicates info about
food source
517
The bee dance determines the distance, direction from the hive and
quality of an available food source
518
What is the missing type of bee dance depending on DISTANCE?
round dance: food source within 20 ft from hive
sickle dance: 20 - 60 ft from hive
tail-wagging dance more than 60 feet from hive
519
The number of repetitions in bee dances indicates _;
| fewer reps = _
```
distance
greater distance (OPPOSITE THAN LOGICAL!)
```
520
The _ of the food source is indicated by the angle of dance
direction
521
Bees orient themselves in flight relative to the )
angle of the sun
522
The _ represents the position of sun in the sky
the top of the hive wall
523
The _ of the food source is indicated by intensity of dancing
quality
524
What does the bee dance show that is similar to human language?
arbitrarines
| e.g., uses angle to sun to determine food location, as well as circles and waggles that do not directly measure distance
525
What is a missing difference from human language in bee dances?
limited topic: food source only
limited potential for comm: cannot assess and convey new info (e.g., up)
instinctive
526
What have researchers shown the bee dance failing to effectively comm?
iff bees are forced to walk to their food source, they communicate a far distance, despite it perhaps being a short flight
527
What doesn't bee dancign include/
productivity
528
What is a missing reason for bird calls?
warn of predators
express aggression
coordinate flocking
529
what is the other type of male song?
length, elaborate patterns of pitched sounds
attract mate
announce and delimit territory
530
What are similarities with bird songs and human language?
unique from species to species
dialects exist within bird species
singing ability lateralized in LEFT brain
some birds require several seasons to acquire song (lengthy)
some birds must acquire song within a certain time span (critical period)
e.g., chaffinches - innate and learned component
531
What are differences of bird songs from human language?
| rate and requirements of acquisition vary from species to species
lack creative component (fixed messages)
532
What do bird songs have but don't have?
they have discreteness by the chunks of notes in song, but not productivie - some variation but offering the same message
533
```
What did Alex know?
over 100 English words
basic expressions
could combine words: yummy bread
colours and shapes
coutning small numbers
do simple math
```
express boredom or frustration
534
What wasn't Alex capable of?
| recursive logic, and therefore not digital numbers or complex human grammar and
critical thinking or human logic
535
What are non-human primates?
monkeys
chimpanzees
gorillas
536
Why are non-human primates interesting?
closely related genetically to humans!
537
What is the eternal interest of psycholinguistics?
can animals communicate like humans?
538
Methods of comm by non-human primates include:
calls
gestures
gazing
postures
539
What tiny New World monkey weighing 0.5 kg in tropical forests are endangered, highly vocal with 38 distinct calls with chirps and whistles, and have calls with meaning - sing and in combination?
cotton-top tamarins
540
What similarities to human language do cotton-top tamarins have?
arbitrainess
discreteness (click and whistle) = a sentence?
541
What differences to human language do cotton-top tamarins have?
productivity - set sequences?
limited topics
542
According to researchers, what are limited messages in a natural habitat that non-human primates use?
mark and announce territory
warn other group members of danger
seek or maintain contact with other members
socializing behaviour
543
What non-human primate lived with Keith and Cathy Hayes, learned to articulate the words mama, papa, cup and up, and was physiologically disadvantaged in terms of speaking?
Viki the chimp
544
What non-human primate was raised by Allen and Beatrice Gardner, was taught ASL (as well as taught ASL to adopted son Louis), learned to produce 130 signs, used signs spontaneously, and was said to combine signs to produce new utterances, such as water bird (duck)?
Washoe the chimp
545
Why did Washoe learn ASL instead of speaking?
chimps have manual dexterity that would make it easier to comm, although their smaller thumbs required some adjustments
546
What non-human primate was raised by Duane Rumbaugh and was taught to push buttons with symbols on a computer console, learned object naming and word order, and could produce grammatical sentences and receive a reward
Lana the chimp
547
What non-human primate was taught ASl and learned more than 1000 signs, and created new combinations such as finger bracelet (ring), and insulted people (dirty toilet devil)?
Koko the gorilla
548
Who suggested that Nim Chimpsky did not learn how to comm, but just was simply cued by, and interpreted by his trainers?
Herbert Terrace
549
What else did Herbert Terrace argue that Nim Chimpsky could/n't do?
rarely initiated signs except when expecting a reward
half his signs were (partial) imitations
confused signs similar in form, but not their meaning
most phrases were random combos of signs
could only use 3 new words
no turn-taking with many interruptions
550
What non-human primates did Susan Savage-Rumbaugh teach lexigrams on a computer to, and a spoken word would come up when pressed 9not signed language)?
the bonobos Kanzi and Panbanisha
551
Who argued that animal intelligence is a continuum?
Irene Pepperberg
552
What is on the animal comm of the language continuum?
non-arbitrary signs
limited topics
instinctive
553
What is on the human comm of the language continuum?
arbitrary signs
creativity (productivity)
innate and acquired
554
Whit is defined as the study of language?
linguistics
555
What is defined as a system of sounds, words, sentences, gestures, and meanings?
language
556
What is language?
a system of comm
557
What is a language?
specific system comon to a group of people
558
What are two approaches to the study of language?
| linguistics - system
applied linguistics - context
559
```
What language in context do applied linguists study?
language learning and teaching
bilinguaism
writing
literacy
language and power
```
discourse
560
What is considered language?
complex system
uniquely human
cognitive science (mind)
561
What is IPA?
Int'l phonetic alphabet
562
What do we know when we know a language?
| components - sounds, words, sentences, meanings
rules - explain patterns
563
Beyong english there are universals, and
differences
564
What is defined as the relationship between sound and meaning (core)?
linguistic knowledge
565
What is mostly arbitrary and sometimes iconic
| e.g., onomatopoeia and sound symbolism
linguistic knowledge
566
What is defined sounds according to:
inventory (sock vs Bach)
combos (spaff vs *fsap)
different pronunciations of the same sound (e.g., aspiration)
phonetics and phonology
567
What is the study of words?
morphology
568
What else does morphology determine?
lexicon
lexical categories
internal structure
569
What is the mental dictionary?
lexicon
570
What are nouns, verbs, adj, adv, pp,...
lexical categories
571
What internal structure requires the individual to understand (e.g., ungiraffelike refers to that which isn't a giraffe) and construct sentences (e.g., treat-ment)?
morphology
572
What is sentence structure or word order/structure?
syntax
573
What does syntax predict?
whether a sentence maeks sense or not
574
What is defined as word meaning and word relations?
semantics
575
What are conventional word meanings?
speakers agree
576
What are word relations?
e.g., antonyms, synonyms, etc.
577
What are the qualities of sentence meaning?
truth
metaphor
anomaly - doesn't make sense
578
What do sentence relatons requires?
entailment / logically proceeds e.g., John has a poodle, therefore he has a dog
579
What is the use of language in context?
pragmatics
580
What are the components and rules of a language?
grammar
581
What are components of language?
sounds, words, sentences, meanings
582
What are rules in grammar?
explanations of patterns
583
```
What is grammar?
what we know when we know a language
allows us to comm
exists in the minds of its speakers (mental grammar)
uniquely human
```
allows us to form and interpret words and sentences
584
What is uniquely human?
grammar
585
What is defined as an innate set of linguistic principles shared by all humans?
Universal Grammar
586
who suggested language develops too rapidly and with inadequate input to be simply learned?
Noam Chomsky
587
What is biologically programmed in humans to learn language, and with it one adds language input data for a specific language?
Universal Grammar
588
What do linguists tudy that doesn't always correspond with mental grammar and its production?
competence
589
What grammar is studied by linguistics?
descriptive (describes rules) vs prescriptive (judgmental)
590
What did AAE Jeopardy video determine
linguistic - descriptive grammar
| applied 1st language acquisition
591
What are also applied linguistic perspectives?
first language acquisition
second language acquisition
sociolinguistics
592
What is defined as dialect variation, minority languages, regional and social factors, and valuing linguistic differences?
sociolinguistics
593
```
What are other linguistic subdisciplines?
1st lang acquisition
2nd lang acquisition
sociolinguistics
psycholinguistics (brain)
endangered languages
neurolinguistics
```
language and computers
| forensic linguistics
594
What is the scientific study of language?
lingusitics
595
What is the process of deducation that can't observe grammar directly, analyzes spreakers' performance, and deduces speakers' competence?
theory of grammar
596
What does this define?
construct theory based on linguistic data
test theory on more data
revise theory if necessary, and go back to b
scientific method
