Overview Flashcards
1
Q
What is Alexander II known as?
A
The Tsar Reformer
2
Q
What reform in 1861 appeared that Alexander’s reign was adopting a ‘new course?
A
The Emancipation of the Serfs
3
Q
How many serfs were freed?
A
51 million serfs
4
Q
How long did the serfs have to pay redemption payments for?
A
49 years
5
Q
What other major condition did the serfs have that restricted the development of agriculture?
A
The serfs had to remain within their commune, the mir
6
Q
What were the benefits for the serfs after the emancipation in 1861?
A
- They were granted an an allotment of land
- Serfs were released from their bondage to landowners and become free men . They would be free to marry, own property, set up businesses and enjoy legal rights
7
Q
What were the six major areas in society of which Alexander II reformed?
A
- Emancipation of the serfs
- Military
- Education
- Local Government
- Judiciary
- Censorship
8
Q
What were the main changes within the military reform?
A
- Length of service was reduced from 25 years to 15 years
- Conscription was made compulsory for all classes (including nobles) from the age of 20
- Punishments were made less serve
- New modern weaponry was introduced
- Military colleges were set up to provide better training for the officer corps
9
Q
Were Alexander’s military reforms in his early reign successful?
A
- Created a smaller but better-trained army
- Reduced the heavy government expenditure
- Literacy improved however still a substantial amount of illiterate peasants who could not benefit from the better training on offer
- Officer classes still remained and it remained, in essence, remained a peasant conscripted army
10
Q
Which minister was appointed to implement change within the Local Government?
A
Alexander Milyutin (1860) Pyotr Valuev (1864)
11
Q
What was the main change in Local Government under Alexander II?
A
Local councils were set up - named the Zemstva which was organised through ‘electoral colleges’.
12
Q
What powers did the Zemstva have?
A
- It was given the power to improve public services (e.g. schools, roads), develop industrial projects and improve infrastructure
- They were mainly filled by liberal-minded professional people, such as doctors, lawyers and teachers so it provided a forum for debate about central government
- The powers of the Zemstva still however remained limited as the Tsar could overturn decisions and he appointed the officials
13
Q
What impact did Alexander’s education reforms have?
A
- Universities could govern themselves
- Zemstva had responsibility of schools
- Primary/secondary education was extended - ‘open to all regardless of class and sex’
- However this caused political opposition to increase as people became more aware of Western ideologies and radical ideas.
14
Q
How did the Judiciary change?
A
- Innocent till proven guilty
- ‘Equality before law’ was established
- Judges were given better training and better pay
- Juries and lawyers present
15
Q
What reform caused the development of the intelligentsia?
A
Censorship
16
Q
Who was the minister of finance between 1862 and 1878?
A
Von Reutern
17
Q
What economic changes did Von Reutern implement under Alexander II?
(GIFT)
A
G - government support increased for cotton & mining
I - import duties (tariffs) were reduced to promote trade
F - foreign investment was encouraged
T - the treasury was reformed - abolished tax-farming
18
Q
Who assassinated Alexander II?
A
A group of Social Revolutionaries known as the ‘People’s Will’
19
Q
Micheal Lynch quote about Alexander II’s reforms:
A
‘It was unthinkable that he would continue with a process that might compromise his power as tsar’
20
Q
What did Alexander II do when he feared he had gone ‘too far’ with his reforms?
A
He abandoned his reformist policies and returned to the tsarists tradition of oppression
21
Q
During Alexander II’s reign, what new ‘class’ emerged?
A
The Kulaks - richer peasants
22
Q
What was one of the major decision that Alexander II made that jeopardised the tsarists regime and its authority?
A
Removal of restrictions on the press meaning they could report freely and criticise the regime. This led to more people joining revolutionary groups that opposed the tsars and wanted individual freedom
23
Q
What is meant by ‘Young Russia’?
A
A new, more radical and modernised Russia.
In June 1882, a series of fires in St Petersburg destroyed over 2,000 shops, there were rumours that radical students and ‘Young Russia’ supporters were responsible.
24
Q
What was the Okhrana?
A
The secret police - used to control any opposition or illegal radical groups working underground
25
Terrence Emmons quote on the outcome of the Emancipation of the Serfs:
the edict was a 'state-directed' manipulation of society aimed to 'strengthen social and political stability'
26
Why did some historians believe the Emancipation Edict in 1861 was vital?
For the transition towards a Capitalist economy
27
Reasons for the Emancipation of the Serfs in 1861?
1. Frequent peasant unrest/uprisings
2. Prominence of liberal ideologies - intelligentsia
3. Undeveloped economy
4. Defeat in the Crimean war/poor military
5. Influences over Alexander II - his brother, aunt, the nobility circle 'Party of St.Petersburg progress'
28
How many riots took place four months after the Emancipation Edict in 1861?
647 riots
29
In 1861 what % of farms were not self-sufficient?
25%
30
How many more primary schools were built from 1856 compared to 1880?
8000 in 1856
| 23,000 in 1880
31
By the 1870s, how many university students were they?
10,000
32
When was the Russo-Turkish war?
1879-1880
33
Who was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs?
Mikhail Loris-Meilkov
34
What major changes did Loris-Meilkov take?
Released political prisoners, relaxed censorship and lifted restrictions on the activities of the zemstva
35
Who were 'Westerners'?
People who believed Russia to adopt the best features of the political and economic systems of Western countries
36
Who were 'Slavophiles'?
People who regarded western values as corrupting and attempted to preserve traditional Russian values
37
Who was Alexander's tutor?
Pobedonostev
38
How did Alexander's reign begin?
With the public hanging of the conspirators involved in his father's assassination and the 1881 'Manifesto of Unshakable Autocracy'
39
What was the Law on Exceptional Measures issued by Alexander?
A statement that declared that, if necessary, a Commander-in-Chief could be appointed to take control of a locality, using military courts.
40
Created in July 1889, this could override elections to the zemstvo to disregard decisions made
'Land Captain' appointed by the state
41
When was the peasants vote reduced in the zemstva?
1890
42
When were the zemstvo's placed under government control?
1890
43
Who was head of the Police Department between 1881 and 1884?
Von Plehve
44
What statue in 1882 enabled police to search, arrest, imprison or exile any one who had committed a crime or those who it was thought would likely commit a crime?
The 1882 Statue on police Surveillance
45
In 1889 which courts were put under the control of Land Captains in the countryside and under judges in the towns?
Volost courts
46
What was the Education curriculum in universities changed to?
Based on 'religious, moral and patriotic orientation' rather than academic grounds
47
In 1897 what % of the population were literate?
21%
48
What did the 'temporary regulations' act in 1882 allow?
It allowed newspapers to be closed down and a life ban placed on editors and publishers
49
What were some positive changes under Alexander III?
1. Reduction in redemption payments in 1881
2. In 1885, the poll tax was abolished and the introduction of inheritance tax helped to shift the burden of taxation a little
3. Peasant Land Bank introduced in 1883
50
Who were the two Ministers of Finance during AIII reign?
Nikolai Bunge (1881-86) and Vyshnegradsky (1887-1892)
51
What were the main changes Bunge made to the economy?
1. First income tax
2. Supported government intervention, railway building and tariff protection
3. REDUCED REDEMPTION PAYMENTS
4. Peasant Land Banks in 1883 - helped to buy additional land from the nobility
However peasants still paid 90% of taxes
52
What were the main changes Vyshnegradsky made to the economy?
1. High tariff of 30% - to boost home production
2. Negotiated loans and increased indirect taxes
3. Grain exports increased by 18%
however this caused a widespread Great Famine from 1891-92
53
When were the Peasant Land Banks introduced?
1883
54
When were the Nobles Land Banks introduced?
1885
55
What year was the Russian Budget in surplus?
1892
56
What % did grain exports increase?
18%
57
The Secret Police
The Gestapo
58
Forcing everyone within the Russian Empire to think of themselves as 'Russian', by enforcing the Russian language and culture
Russification
59
Being prejudiced against and persecuting Jews
Anti-Semitism
60
An old Russian word which means 'round up' or lynching
Pogrom
61
What major impact did Russification have on Finland?
- The 'diet' [parliament] was reorganized in 1892
- Russian coinage replaced the local currency
- The Russian language was increasingly demanded
62
What major impact did Russification have on Poland?
- The Polish National Bank was closed in 1885
| - In education, the teaching of all subjects, apart from Polish, had to be in Russian
63
What major impact did Russification have on the Ukraine?
- Limited the use of the Ukrainian language in 1883
| - In 1884, all theatres in the five Ukrainian provinces were closed
64
Who was the head of the Orthodox Church?
The Tsar
65
Why did many people support the Orthodox Church?
As there were laws benefiting those of Orthodox faith and many wanted to take advantage of the special measures of support
66
From what year were members of non-Orthodox Churches not allowed to build new places of worship or spread any religious propaganda?
1883
67
What did Russification cause?
Resentment among the educated and wealthy national minorities: Finns, poles and Baltic Germans. Led to secret publications of local language books. It also caused many national minorities to emigrate and join political opposition groups
68
How many mass disturbances took place in 1888 over Russification?
322 cases
51 of these cases had military employed
69
What were the beliefs of Russification?
1. Supporters genuinely believed they were acting for the good of the country an to enable modernization to reassert Russian strength.
2. More generally believed that it was a misguided policy that had the opposite effect from that intended
70
What is Walter Moss' view on Russification?
That although it seemed 'foolish and counterproductive', it was ultimately part of the 'counter-reform mentality' and that it was needed in order to maintain the Empire's political stability
71
Russification 'failed to achieve its ends' by...
Peter Waldron
72
How many Jews were in the Russian Empire at this time?
5 million
73
From what year had the Jewish population been confined to area of western Russia known as the Pale of Settlement?
1836
74
What was Pobedonostev's slogan about Anti-Semitism?
'Beat the Yids - Save Russia'
75
What type of violent actions were taken place against the Jews during pogroms?
Jewish property was burnt, shops and businesses destroyed and there were many incidences of rape and murder
76
What laws introduced in 1882 added to the discrimination against the Jews?
The May Laws in 1882
| - condemned the Jews to living in ghettos in cities and towns
77
In the winter of 1891-92, how many Russian Jews were expelled from Moscow/
10,000
78
What was the impact of anti-Semitism on the Jewish population in Russia?
Caused Jews to drive towards revolutionary groups, and in particular Marxist circles. Many Jews also left the country and some were even expelled (e.g. Kiev in 1886)
79
When did AIII restrict the powers of the zemstvo and who did this disappoint?
In 1889-90 and the zemstva liberals
80
In the 1990s, the attraction of the Slavophiles diminished causing a..................................................to take root. This caused a split in the..................................
Western-style socialism
| Intelligentsia
81
What is argued to be the main reason why opposition increased from 1891?
The Great Famine
82
What idea does Orlando Figes illustrate about the growing opposition?
The importance of the Famine as a turning point in the development of opposition
83
Why was Menshevik and Bolshevik opposition very restricted up until 1917?
Many of the leaders remained on exile
| The Okhrana and the military were very loyal to the Tsar
84
Who established the 'Emancipation of Labour group'? when? and why?
```
George Plekhanov (became a Marxist in 1903)
1883
To arrange Marxist tracts to be smuggled into Russia and to demonstrate that Marxism was fully applicable in Russia
```
85
What year was Vyshnegradsky dismissed and why?
In 1892 due to the disaster of the Great Famine
86
How many people died from starvation or disease during the Great Famine?
350,000
87
The failure of the government to find a solution and intervene in the Great Famine led to an increase in...
opposition against the regime
88
What were the main things during AIII reign that threatened autocracy?
1. The Great Famine in 1891-92 which spurred opposition > perhaps even led to the 1905 revolution
2. Russification and anti-Semitism increased opposition to the regime as very few supported these policies
89
By 1882, how many nobles owned their own businesses in Moscow?
700 nobles
90
What reforms were introduced in 1891-92?
Regulations of child labour, a reduction in working hours, a reduction in excess fines and 'payment in kind' > payments in goods/services rather than money
^ however these contributed very little towards improving he lives o the growing working class
91
How many strikes were there per year between 1886-1894?
Around 33 strikes per year - even though they were illegal
92
Average life expectancy was around...
27 for males and 29 for females
93
When did Nicholas come into power?
1894
94
What was Nicholas' personality?
Small, natural reserved, indecisive, not a practical man
| Exclaimed 'what is going to happen to me and to all of Russia'
95
Nationalist gangs devoted to the 'Tsar, Church and Motherland' > played a major role in crushing the 1905 revolution
The Black Hundreds
96
Give an example of outburst in Russian universities
In 1901, force was used against a crowd of students in St Petersburg killing thirteen, and in the aftermath of the incident, 1500 students were imprisoned
97
What was the nickname of the mass disturbances and arson attacks in rural communities from 1902 to 1907>
The years of the red cockerel
98
What kind of action did the peasants take in the rural area's?
Set fire to landlords' barns, destroying grain, seized woodland and physically attacked landlords
99
What was the result of the 'years of the red cockerel'?
Stolypin dealt with the disturbances. Peasants were arrested and exiled, or shot in their thousands
100
How many strikes took place in the year 1904?
90,000
101
Give an example of an industrial strike that escalated in the towns?
In 1901, the Obukhov factory in St Petersburg so violent clashes between armed police and Cossacks
102
What union was formed in 1904 by Father Gregorii Gapon and how many members did it have?
The Assembly of St Petersburg Factory Workers and it had 8000 members
103
When was the Russo-Japanese war?
1904
104
When was Plehve assassinated?
1904
105
What was the Russo-Japanese war unpopular?
It was announced it was going to be a 'short swift victorious war' > ended in defeat and caused anti-Japanese patriotism
106
When was Blood Sunday?
9th January 1905
107
What triggered the 1905 revolution?
A strike began at Putilov iron Works in St Petersburg, led by Father Gapon and soo involved 150,000 workers
108
What was the result of Blood Sunday?
12,000 troops were used to break up the demonstration leaving 150 dead and thousands wounded
109
How many people died on Blood Sunday?
150 people
110
What was the October Manifesto in 1905?
- Established a State Duma so allowing a voice to all classes of the population and it gave them power to approve laws
111
What was the initial reaction to the October Manifesto?
It was greeted with celebrations on the streets of St. Petersburg and the pre-organized General Strike was called off
112
How many St Petersburg Soviets are arrested on the 3rd December 1905?
250 members including Trotsky
113
What other measures does Nicholas II take in order to control opposition and unrest?
1. Peasant redemption payments are halved
| 2. Press censorship end
114
What was the purpose of the Fundamental Laws issued by Nicholas II in 1906 and what powers did it give him?
It was issued to reassert his power. The tsar also claimed the right to:
- to veto legislation
- dissolve the duma
- to appoint and dismiss government ministers
- to control the Orthodox Church
- to control the military and declare war
115
The First Duma...(April-June 1906)
- Boycotted by the Bolsheviks, SR's and extreme rights
| - Requested radical reforms which were all rejected
116
The Second Duma...(Feb-June 1907)
- More left-wing and opposed the government
- Refusal to support Stolypin's agricultural reforms
- Dissolved due to attack on the army
117
The Third Duma...(Nov 1907-June 19120
- Agreed to most government reforms
- Set up schools for poor children
- National Insurance for workers
118
The Fourth Duma...(Nov 1912-August 1914)
- Voiced criticisms to the Tsar
| - It was blind of the Tsar to not consider the power of the Duma as this may have saved the Tsarist regime
119
When was Stolypin assassinated?
1911
120
What did Stolypin establish in 1906 that dealt with crimes deemed to be political in intent?
Court Martials led by senior military officers
121
How many people were convicted and execute between 1906-1909 under the Court Martials?
3000 people
122
Stolypin's intolerance and ruthlessness became known as...
Stolypin's Neck Tie
123
What had opposition weakened by 1914?
- Internal quarrels within the opposition groups
- Increased police activity
- Revival of patriotism
124
What major figure caused the Royal Families reputation to be damaged?
Rasputin
125
Who was the Minister of Finance under Nicholas II?
Sergei Witte
126
What main changes did Witte undergo for the economy?
1. Development of the Trans-Siberian railway
2. 'The Great Spurt' > boom in 'heavy' industries
3. Economic modernization > State Capitalism
4. Heavy taxation and tariffs > caused prices to rise
5. Russia was placed on the Gold Standard to encourage international investment
127
How much did coal output increase in 1900?
671 million puds
128
What was the State Capital used for?
Fund public works, develop Russia's infrastructure (railways, telegraph lines) as well as develop mines, oilfields and forests for timber
129
By early 1900's , what % of the railways was state controlled?
70%
130
What was Nicholas II's main aim to improve industry?
For rearmament in preparation for war
131
How did the development aid Russia's economy?
Allowed more extensive exploitation of Russia's raw materials and reinforced the export drive of grain
132
By 1913, Russia's railway network was second largest in the world with........................kilometers
62,200 km
133
Pro's and con's of the Trans-Siberian railway?
+ brought economic benefits (e.g. opened up Western Siberia for emigration and farming)
- it promised more than it delivered and by 1914 was not fully completed
134
Between 1908-1913 - aka. 'the Great Spurt' - what was the % industrial growth rate per year?
8.5% per year
135
By 1914, Russia was the.............................largest industrial power in the world
Fifth (5th)
136
Overall conditions in the factories?
Working conditions were poor, over-crowding due to high industrialization and there was a lack of modern machinery meaning it was very labour intensive
137
Developments in agriculture?
- Traditional farming methods continued (e.g. medieval rotation systems and wooden ploughs)
- Railway proved insufficient to alleviate the pressure of a growing population
- However, Stolypin sought more 'kulaks'
138
How did Stolypin describe the kulaks? and why?
'Sturdy and Strong'
| To win their loyalty to tsardom and to aid him to develop thee economy by improving agriculture
139
What was the major issue with Stolypin's proposed agricultural reforms?
He claimed that he needed 20 years of peace for his reforms to have effect > the impossible as the coming of war prevented this
140
What was the value of grain production in 1914?
90 million
141
Failures of Stolypin's reforms
1. By 1914, only 10% of land had been transferred from communal to private ownership
2. In 1914, 90% of peasant holdings were still in traditional strips, with conservative peasants reluctant to give up their traditional practices and the security that the 'Mir' provided them
3. Landowners were often reluctant to give up land
4. Fewer than 1% achieved 'kulak' status
142
By 1913, how many factory workers were in Russia?
6 million
143
What had the Empire's Urban population risen to from 1867 to 1917?
7 million in 1867
| 28 million in 1917
144
What was the Empire's Urban population in 1917?
28 million
145
What were the facilities like in the cities?
Inadequate, unhygienic, workers had to eat in canteens and wash in communal bathhouses
146
In St Petersburg at the turn of the century, what % of houses had no running water or sewage system?
40%
147
How many workers died of cholera in 1908-09?
30,000
148
When was the industrial depression and how was it caused?
1900-08
| The wages of workers were failing to keep pace with inflation and the booming economy
149
There was an..........% rise in primary school provisions between 1905 and 1914
85%
150
However only ........% of children were in full-time education by 1914
55%
151
Give an example of the Governments only way of dealing with strikes/opposition - repression
Siberia, 1912 -Lena Goldfields workers went on strike for better wages and conditions and troops were went in > 270 workers killed and 250 injured
152
How many workers were killed in the 'Lena Goldfields Massacre' in 1912?
270 workers
153
Did conditions for peasants in the countryside improve?
No - widespread rural poverty, many were forced to leave their farms and join the bands of migrant laborers looking for either seasonal farming work or industrial employment
154
How many peasants migrated to Siberia in Stolypin's attempt to improve agriculture?
3.5 million peasants - out of the 9 million
155
What % of illiteracy was around in 1914?
60%
156
Position of the nobility under NII?
- Knock-on effect from the Emancipation Edict in 1861
- Many had thrived on favorable land arrangements
- Many had strong military connections
- High influence over the zemstva
- Retained much of their previous wealth and status
157
Position of the middle class under NII?
- Increased number of businesses and professional men
- Some social mobility as nobles' sons chose to join the business world or hard-working peasants rose up
- Found themselves on the councils of the zemstva and the state dumas
158
Position of the workers and peasantry under NII?
- Poor conditions, disease and famine caused an increase in 'political activism'
159
How did women benefit under NII reign?
Political and economic development brought some new opportunities for women including factory work, mainly on the evenings. Also more educational opportunities and in December 1908, the First All-Russian Congress of Women campaigned for a female franchise
160
What was the government expenditure on primary education in 1914?
82 million roubles
161
Cultural changes under NII?
- 'silver age' of Russian culture
- Censorship was relaxed allowing more publications of books, newspapers and articles
- Culture had diversified beyond the intelligentsia
- Domination of poets and classic literature
162
Between 1860 and 1914, by how much did the number of university students grow?
5000 to 69,000
163
What caused an outpour of patriotism and support for the tsar when war was announced in 1914?
Traditionalism - soldiers carried icons of Nicholas as they marched to the front and all social groups rallied in defence of the Russian Motherland
164
What major events/issues caused Liberal opposition?
- The Great Famine 1991-92
- Reduction of zemstva powers
- Poor educational reforms
- Industrial depression fro 1900-08
165
Who was Prince Lvov?
Wealthy landowner and liberal Kadet leader > served in the first Duma
166
What were the tactics of the Social Revolutionaries?
They tried to stir up discontent in the countryside nd strikes in towns, similarly to the Populist movement, and disrupt government through political assassinations.
^ played an active role in the 1905 Revolution
167
Between 1901 and 1905, how many assassinations did SR's carry out?
2000 - including Plehve
168
When was the split in the Social Democrats? and what groups did they split into?
1904
Mensheviks > Trotsky
Bolsheviks > Lenin
169
What were the tactics/aims of the Mensheviks?
- Believed that revolution had to come from the workers themselves. They had alliances with other bourgeois liberal parties
170
What were the tactics/aims of the Bolsheviks?
- Believed in class struggle and that revolution would occur by aiding and educating the workers. Described as a 'democratic centralism'
171
How did the government react to fear of independent working-class strike activity?
497 trade unions were closed down and a further 604 were denied registration between 1906 and 1910
172
What strike activity a major threat to autocracy before 1914?
No, pre-war strike movement was less than it seemed.
Geographically limited, only 12% of enterprises experienced a strike and even the General Strike in July 1914 only brought out a quarter of the manufacturing labour force
173
What was the initial spirit of national solidarity damped?
Battle of Tannenburg left 300,000 dead or wounded and many were captured prisoner > it was clear it would not be a clear victory
174
Why did the liberal zemstva oppose the 'military zones' set up by the government to restrict all civilian authority?
They regarded the government as insensitive to the needs of the people and believed civilians had a major part to play in running the war
175
When and who killed Rasputin?
1916 and a group of nobilities loyal to the Tsar
176
What equipment issues affected the war?
By Christmas 1914, there was already a serious shortage of munitions.
In 1914, the infantry had only two rifles for every three soldiers
There was a lack of suitable clothing/footwear
177
Spending on the war rose from..................... in 1914 to ......................by 1918
1,500 million roubles
| 14,500 million roubles
178
What did the increase need for grain to the military cause some farmers to do?
Hoarded what grain and foodstuffs they produced
179
Why had the railways been taken over?
To transport men and goods to the frontline causing acute food and fuel shortages.
180
What was the impact of increased numbers of workers in essential war industries?
Armament manufacture improved in 1916 - rifle production doubled and heavy artillery quadrupled
181
When did unemployment increase in urban area's?
As non-essential industries were closed down and lock-outs and strikes crippled what little industry survived
182
What was the % rise of living?
300%
183
In January 1917, how many workers went on strike in Moscow and Petrograd?
Moscow > 30,000
| Petrograd > 145,000
184
Why did the revolution in 1917 cause the collapse of the Tsarist Regime?
1. Nicholas no longer had the support of the military or the nobility
2. Impact of war caused uncontrollable situations
3. Opposition groups were more united
185
What was 'Order No.1'?
A charter of soldier rights which was agreed by the Petrograd Soviet ('councils'). Seen as revolutionary and insisted that all soldiers and workers should obey the Provisional Government
186
How many years of Romanov dynasty came to an end in 1917?
304 years
187
What revolutionary disturbances were happening elsewhere outside of Petrograd?
- In cities, workers seized control of their factories and set up workers' committees and deposed their former bosses
- The army, under the command of the Petrograd Soviet, disintegrated into semi-independent bodies without clear leadership
- In the countryside, peasants attacked landlords' properties and felled trees illegally
- In provinces such as Finland, Poland and the Ukraine, national minorities declared their independence
188
What do soviet historians interpret about the events of February 1917?
- An inevitable class struggle between the bourgeoisie-proletarian forces and traditional aristocratic forces of the urban workers in St Petersburg.
- They believe it was the Bolsheviks who inspired the revolution and the setting up of the Petrograd
189
What was the 'Provisional Government'?
Grand-Duke Mikhail relinquished political authority under Prince Lvov and its members represented included influential elites and compromised those who had previously favoured the monarchy (e.g. liberals, moderate socialists and Kadets)
190
What groups who previously supported the monarchy were under-threat due to the Provisional Government?
Kadets, Liberals and Moderate Socialists
191
Who was the Petrograd Soviet dominated by?
Mensheviks, SR's and a small number of Bolsheviks
192
What laid the foundations of the Dual Power period in 1917?
Negotiations by Alexander Kerensky for the Provisional Government and the Soviet to work together
193
What promises of the Provisional Government did the Soviet accept?
1. A general amnesty for political prisoners
2. Basic civil liberties
3. The abolition of legal disabilities based on class, religion and nationality
4. The right to organize trade unions and to strike
5. That a Constituent Assembly would be elected
194
What other changes were made under Dual power?
- Freedom off religion and the press
- Abolishment of the death penalty
- Replaced the tsarist police force with 'people's militia'
195
Why were local 'soviets' set up by peasants and workers all across Russia?
To demand a say in the running of factories and to be able to control their own affairs
196
What did Milyukov's announcement in April 1917 cause?
He stated that the government would keep on fighting until 'just peace' had been won. This led to massive war demonstrations in Petrograd forcing him to resign
197
How many desertions were they between March to May in 1917?
365,000 > caused the death penalty to be reinstated as the only way of controlling troops
198
What was the Kornilov coup?
Kornilov, Commander-in-Chief of the army, ordered six regiments of troop sot march on Petrograd with the intention of crushing the Soviet and establish a military dictatorship. Kornilov's supplies were cut and the cup leaders were arrested
199
Why did the Provisional Government lose support from the countryside?
Due to the continuation of the war and the failure to redistribute land
200
Why did the Provisional Government lose support from the workers?
Food shortages and real wages fell. Also when the right of factory owners to dismiss workers who went on strikes was confirmed, and the meetings of factory committees during working hours was forbidden
201
Where from and when did Lenin return from?
From exile in Switzerland and in April 1917
202
How did Lenin manage to return from exile? Who helped him?
Germans who expected him to seize power and make peace
203
Who became the first Minister (of war) in 1917?
Kerensky
204
What was the 'April Thesis'?
A gist of words spoken by Lenin in his speech to the greeting crowds at the Finland Station in Petrograd.
Demand for 'peace, bread and land'
205
Where was the 'April Thesis' published?
In the party's official newspaper - the 'Pravda'
206
What did the 'April Thesis' demand?
- Power should be transferred to the Soviets
- The war should be brought to an immediate end
- All land should be taken over by the State and re-allocated by local soviets
207
What did the 'April Thesis' demands become known as?
'Peace, bread and land'
208
What was Lenin's motto?
'All power to the soviets'
209
What was the initial reaction to the reappearance of Lenin?
- Fear that Lenin had grown 'out of touch'
- Fear that Lenin's radical proposals would do more harm than good
- That Lenin' call to oppose the Provisional Government was unrealistic
- Mensheviks feared Lenin would provoke a right-wing reaction and stir up discontent
210
How many members did the Bolsheviks have?
26,000 - still a minority to the socialists
211
How did Lenin win over the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party?
By sheer force of personality
212
When did Trotsky decide to throw his full weight behind the Bolshevik cause?
Beginning of July 1917
213
What were the 'July Days'?
Forcing of 586 factories causing 100,000 to be unemployed caused the workers to want price controls, Even the Kronstadt sailors joined the workers on the streets and protested 'all power to the soviets'
214
In October 1917, what was the new Bolshevik membership figure?
200,000
215
Who became chairman of the Petrograd Soviet in September?
Trotsky
216
What was Kerensky's reaction to the Bolshevik's threat to seize power?
Responded by sending some of the more radical army units out of the capital. He also tried to close down two Bolshevik newspapers and restricted the Military Revolutionary Committee's power when Lenin announced that 'an armed rising is the order of the day'
217
The name given to the Bolshevik Secret Police
The Cheka
218
What happened through the night on October 24th-25th?
In the name of the Second Congress of Soviets, 5000 sailors and soldiers from Kronstadt moved into the city and Bolshevik Red Guards seized key positions around the capital (e.g. post offices, railways stations).
219
What happened on the evening of the 25th?
The storming of the Winter Palace - 15,000 gathered to watch or took part in the Bolsheviks claim to power.
220
What did Trotsky admit about the October Revolution?
Only 25,000-30,000 'at the most' were actively involved and the revolution was essentially a series of 'small operations, calculated and prepared in advance'
221
Historians views on how the revolution occurred?
Fitzpatrick - adopts a more Liberal view that it was a spontaneous rebellion which the Bolsheviks were bae to exploit
Carr - argues Lenin was the directing force
Critics of the 'heroic Lenin' would argue that he was absent for most of 1917 and it was indeed Trotsky who was the leading power in the revolution as he organized the Red Guards + the storming of the Winter Palace
222
What immediate measures did Lenin take?
1. Decree on peace: promised an end to war 'without annexation and indemnities' - demobilization followed
2. Decree on land: abolished private ownership and legitimized peasant seizures without compensation to landlords
3. Workers control decree: gave workers the right to 'supervise management'
4. Decrees on the Church were nationalised
5. Government outlawed sex discrimination and gave women the right to own property
6. Closure of anti-Bolshevik newspapers
7. Propaganda campaign against political and 'class enemies (e.g. the bourgeoisie)
223
Who benefitted/did not benefit form the Bolshevik Revolution in October 1917?
+ Women did benefit > outlawed sex discrimination
+ Workers did benefit > 'supervise management'
+ Peasants did benefit > legitimized peasant seizures, promise to redistribution of land in 'April Thesis
+ Soldiers did benefit > end to war and military decree removed class-ranks in the army
+ National Minorities did benefit > promised independence to the peoples of the former Russian Empire
- Landowners did not > abolishment of private ownership
- Nobility did not > decree against titles, all to become 'citizens'
224
How was Lenin's determination for a one-party Bolshevik State shown?
- No intention of sharing any power with other socialists
- There was a new Bolshevik/Communist power structure
- Dispersal of the Constituent Assembly in Jan 1918. When civilians demonstrated against his action, they were fired on and 12 were killed
- 'the dictatorship of the proletariat'
- Creation of the Cheka = repression of 'counter-revolutionary' enemies
225
When did the Bolsheviks formerly adopt the title of 'Communist Party'?
March 1918
226
Why did Lenin start to allow more 'capitalistic practices' after the war in 1921?
Occurred when he was faced with revolt from workers and peasants who sought to end wartime policies and the Kronstadt sailors, who previously has supported Lenin (eye-opener for Lenin)
227
Lenin's introduction of 'central planning' and nationalization of industry can be seen as a.........
pragmatic (realistic) reaction to the crisis after the war rather than one supporting communist ideologies
228
Why did Lenin argue for a 'ban on factions' within the Communist Party?
As party unity was deemed paramount in difficult circumstances. Stalin used this to defeat his rivals later on
229
How did Lenin die?
Due to ill-health and paralysis from the 1918 attack where he was shot by a SR.
230
What political opposition did the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk cause?
'Whites' who were supported by Western forces (Britain and France) as well as the US to fight to keep Russia a capitalist nation as well as their own interests (loans)
231
What was the treaty called that withdrew Russian forces from the First World War?
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
232
When was the Tsar and his family murdered?
July 1918 in the Urals mountains
233
How did the Communists defeat the Whites?
Due to the Bolsheviks geographical advantages and superior organization. This was at the expense of 10 million death from hunger and epidemic disease, as well as military action
234
What body was created that became the real-centre for Party policy?
The Politburo in 1919 including Lenin, Trotsky and Stalin
235
What does Marxism teach?
That society evolves through class struggle
236
What education act was set up under Lenin?
The Commissariat of Enlightenment - which provided free education at all levels in schools
237
What opposition types did the Bolsheviks face?
- From other political groups
- From former tsarist officers and loyal peasants
- From the ideological 'opposition' - upper classes of society
238
Who was the first leader of the Cheka established in 1917?
Felix Dzerzhinsky
239
What made it clear to the Russian people that the state would do all in its power to destroy enemies?
The establishment of the Cheka, the dismissal of the Constituent Assembly and the extension of the Red Army to deal with rebellion
240
How were the bourgeoisie and the upper classes effected by the 'Red Terror'?
There was a form of 'class welfare' and bourgeoisie property was confiscated, social privilege ended and discriminatory taxes levied on the burzhui (the enemy of the people)
241
Who were the 'burzhui'?
the 'enemies of the people'.
| Ideological opponents as much as political ones were arrested, exiled or executed
242
What provided the excuse of 'Terror' to begin?
The attempt on Lenin's life in August 1918
243
When did political opposition come to an end under Lenin?
In 1921, when 34 SR's (social Revolutionaries) were given 'show trails', and made to admit their crimes in public and denounce others.
244
Why were around 8000 priests executed in 1921?
For failing to hand over valuable Church possessions, which were supposedly required for the relief of famine victims
245
How many people were shot due to the 'Red Terror' in the 1918-21 period?
1 million people
246
What did the 'ban on factions' mean in 1921?
That all Party members had to accept the decisions of the Central Committee and anyone who opposed was threatened with expulsion from the party.
247
What are the three main reasons why Stalin emerged as leader in 1929?
1. Ideological reasons
2. Ruthless political ambition
3. His rival's weaknesses
248
What was Lenin's Testament?
A letter to be read to the Party congress on his death. In the letter he gave his critical opinion of other members of the Politburo.
249
How did Lenin refer to Stalin in his 'Testament'?
'personal rudeness, unnecessary roughness and lack of finesse' and he suggested that comrades should consider 'removing Stalin from his post'
250
Why was Lenin's Testament never read in public as intended?
The Central Committee decided among themselves to suppress it and this played massively in Stalin's hands
251
What role previous to Lenin's death gave Stalin a great advantage in the power struggle?
He was appointed general Secretary in 1922 which meant he could appoint people to high-status jobs and he had a powerful influence because of this
252
Name the four other leadership candidates present in the power struggle
Kamenev
Zinoviev
Trotsky
Bukharin
253
What gained Stalin even more support and popularity from the party?
His commitment to continuing the NEP of which solved problems created by War communism and also helped to improve Russia's industry
254
What does Stalin do to Trotsky that slightly damages his reputation?
He told the wrong date of Lenin's funeral so Trotsky was absent
255
What did Trotsky publish that further benefits Stalin?
'Lessons of October' which show how Zinoviev and Kamenev have (unlike Trotsky) opposed Lenin on a number of issues. Stalin however is not mentioned.
256
When is Trotsky forced from his position as Commissar of War?
Dec 1925
257
Who does Stalin first 'buddy' with to gain more supporters and get rid of Zinoviev and Trotsky?
Bukharin
258
Stalin celebrates his ............ as the undisputed Soviet leader
50th
259
How many members were there in the party in 1933?
3,555,338
260
Who were the majority support base of the party and Stalin?
Younger and less-educated urban workers and ex-peasants who were less interested in ideological debate
261
How did Stalin describe the 1936 Constitution drafted by Bukharin?
'the most democratic in the world'
262
What did the 1936 Constitution promise?
>Local autonomy to ethnic groups and support for national cultures and languages.
>Four-yearly elections with the right to vote for all over 18 including the 'former people' who had previously been deprived of voting rights.
> Extensive statement of civil rights - such as freedom for random arrest and right to free speech
263
The new constitution did, indeed, look democratic but what could be argued was its main purpose?
To impress foreigners as the promised rights were largely ignored
264
What propaganda slogans, paintings and sculptures were used to portray Stalin during the early years of his leadership?
- 'Stalin is the Lenin of today'
- ' father of the nation'
- 'might leader'
- 'universal genius'
- 'Red Tsar'
- Regarded as a 'God-like' figure
265
A system of rule established by Stalin from the mid-1930s onwards
'Stalinism'
266
What situation , in 1937, caused Stalin's power to be undermined and threatened?
He was outvoted in the Politburo in his plan to replace Yezhov with Malenkov as head of the NKVD
267
What did the end of the NEP in 1927 become known as?
'The Great Turn'
268
Why was the NEP abandoned?
By 1927, it was failing to produce growth and progress. Stalin also wanted to focus on increase the USSR's military strength and develop its self-sufficiency. Stalin also wanted a move towards true 'socialism'.
269
What did Stalin's strong control over the economy become known as?
'Central planning'
270
What were the 5 yr plans and what did they aim to do?
A series of targets for chosen industries to strive towards and they were intend to force managers and workers to devote their maximum effort into working
271
Failure to achieve target was a ...........offence. This led to many.......... statistics about the actual progress of the 5 yr plans causing ............... in the system
1. Criminal
2. False
3. Corruption
272
Aims of the first five year plan include:
1. Increase production by 300%
2. Develop HEAVY industry
3. Boost electricity production by 600%
2. Double the output in light industry such as chemicals
273
What did Stalin claim about the first five year plan?
That targets were met in 4 years. This was most likely due to 'over-enthusiastic' reporting as none of the major targets were met in reality
274
Give an example of an industrial complex that sprung up due to the first five year plan?
Magnitogorsk in the Urals
275
What were the failures of the first five year plan?
1. House building and other consumer industries were neglected
2. Too few skilled workers and little effective co-ordination for development to occur.
3. Smaller industrial works lost out due to competition
276
Aims of the Second five year plan include:
1. Continued development of heavy industry
2. New emphasis on lighter industries
3. Develop communications to aid industry
4. Boost engineering and tool-making
6. In 1936, focus was changed to rearmament
277
Outcomes of the Second five year plans?
- Moscow Metro opened in 1935
- Volga Canal opened in 1937
- Steel output trebled
- Coal output doubled
- However oil production failed to meet its targets
- No major increase in consumer goods
- Focus on quantity over quality
278
Aims of the Third Five year plans include:
1. Focus on development of heavy industry (due to fear of war)
2. Promote rapid rearmament
3. Complete transition to come
279
What was the outcome of oil production failing to reach its targets again?
There was a fuel crisis
280
What was the biggest problem with the Third Five year plan?
The lack of good managers, specialist and technicians following Stalin's purges
281
Why did the Third Five year plan have to be finished early?
Due to the German invasion in 1941
282
What incentive did enterprises and workers have to work hard?
Bonuses were paid to enterprises that exceeded targets and Managers had to pay 'extra' to workers who exceeded norms
283
Why was the development of agriculture important to Stalin?
Agriculture was important to aid industrialisation as: to enable the purchase of industrial equipment, surplus grain was needed for export and to feed a growing industrial workforce
284
What did Stalin's 'Great Turn' entail for Russian agriculture?
A move towards 'collective farming' - aka. Collectivisation
285
What was it hoped that 'collective farming' would do to farming?
It was hoped it would provide more efficient farming, new modern equipment, 'socialise' the peasants and make grain easier to collect
286
Why did Stalin carry out 'de-kulakisation'?
As he believed some of the grain problems had been caused by them as they understood how to make money by holding back supplies
287
In December 1929, what did Stalin announce he was to do about the 'kulaks'?
'annihilate the kulaks as a class'
| - The Red Army and the Cheka were used to identify, execute or deport kulaks
288
What % of the peasants were said to be 'kulaks'?
4%
289
How many 'richer peasants' were forced to migrate North and East to poorer land?
150,000
290
What % of grain-framing areas were announced by Stalin in 1930 to be collectivised that year?
25%
291
'kolkhoz'
A collective number of peasant families on state-owned land, where peasants lived rent-free but had to fulfill state grain quotas and set targets
292
By 1930, what % of peasant households had been collectivised?
58%
293
What did the second stage of collectivisation cause in 1932 in the Ukraine?
Mass famine - one of the worst famines in Russian history (1932-33). Aka. Holodomor famine
294
How many agricultural machines were established by Machine Tractor Stations (MTS)?
2500 machines
295
What was there purpose of MTS?
To allow hiring of machinery to the kolkhozes, to control the countryside form 'troublemakers' and to ensure quotas were collected. however prices were very high so many could not afford
296
What were the main problems of Collectivisation from 1931?
1. 'Dekulakisation' was inhumane - 10 million successful farmers removed
2. Grain and livestock was destroyed
3. Unrealistic quotas led to many peasants having to and over all of their grain, this led to hoarding of grain
4. Collectives were poorly organised
5. 1932-33 famine in the Ukraine
297
What was collectivisation referred to by the peasants?
a 'Second serfdom'
298
+ and - of collectivisation for Stalin?
+ Strengthened his political position and his authority and support from the party reached new heights
- Failed to bring socialism and economic efficiency to the countryside
299
QUOTE: What was Stalin's famous quote about the value of life?
'one death is a tragedy, a million deaths is a statistic'
300
How many people were exiled as part of Dekulakisation?
10 million
301
By 1941, what was said the USSR had achieved in terms of the economy?
A 'command economy' tightly run by the State - where many groups of people had been sacrificed
302
What is a similarity between Lenin and Stalin's approach to improving the workforce and production rates in factories?
Workers could be imprisoned or shot if they failed to meet targets - a criminal offence
303
What was the 'Stakhanovite' movement?
A way of forcing management to support their workers top increase production rates by rewarding hard workers with bonuses. It increased 'socialist competition'
304
How did children of workers benefit from industrialisation?
Increased educational opportunities that Stalinist Russia offered
305
QUOTE: What did Stalin announce in 1933 about the quality of life for people in Russia?
'life has become better, comrades, life has become more joyous'
however... rationing in cities
overcrowding on public transport
empty shops and short supplies
306
Why did Stalin revert to more traditional policies in society in the 1930s?
- due to fall in population - not helped by purges, collectivisation or poor living conditions
- also due to fears of war
307
What became the focus of a new propaganda wave, in which Stalin was presented as a 'father figure'?
The 'family' - causing divorce and abortion to be attacked and the importance of marriage to be re-emphasised
308
What measures were introduced in 1936 that reversed many of Lenin's policies?
- Contraception was banned
- Financial incentives were offered to large families
- Adultery was criminalised
- Large fees introduced to discourage divorce however the divorce rate still remained high (37% in Moscow in 1934)
309
The number of female industrial workers grew from.........in 1928 to..........in 1940
1. 3 million
| 2. 13 million
310
By 1940, what % of the industrial workforce were women?
43%
311
What other changes were there for women during the 1930s?
Women in education doubled and large numbers of women worked on collective farms however women earned 40% less than men
312
What was the name of the economic planning agency that universities were put under control by?
Veshenka
313
What did the Stakhanovite movement extended to?
The teaching profession and teachers were encouraged to set high targets for themselves and their students. Teachers however could be purged if not achieved so targets were usually set very low
314
By 1941, what % of the 9-49 age group in TOWNS were literate?
94%
315
By 1941, what % of the 9-49 age group in the COUNTRYSIDE were literate?
86%
316
What did the new opportunities did education provide in terms of the hierarchical system in society?
Proved itself as a vehicle for socials mobility
317
What was the 'Komsomol'?
The youth division of the Communist Party which taught communist values
318
When was the 'uninterrupted six-day work week' introduced? what did this prevent?
From 1932 which prevented a 'holy day' of church attendance
319
How did Stalin's 1936 constitution affect the church?
It criminalised the publication or organisation of religious propaganda, although the priests regained the right to vote
320
By 1941, how many Christian churches and Muslim mosques had been closed down? and what had they been converted to?
40,000 Christian churches
25,000 Muslim mosques
Converted to: cinema's, schools, prisons, grain storage and museums
321
What did Stalin aim to create in Russia that belittled national minorities?
Create a 'Soviet identity'. there were deportations of non-Russians and anti-Semitic attitudes were revised.
322
Petrograd changed to....
Leningrad
323
Changes in music, art, literature, the theatre and film all led to the creation of the...
'new socialist man'
324
How was collectivisation enforced and the five year plans maintained?
Through the use of Terror - the NKVD, the Cheka, the Red Army
325
Shakhty Show trails in...
128 showed how Stalin used scapegoats for the chaos caused by his own economic policies creating an 'industrial Terror'
326
The 'industrial party' trail was...
In November 1930, where a group of industrialists were accused as sabotage and used as scapegoats to the failure of Stalin's industrial plans
327
What was it believed that 'gulags' would do?
They could contribute to the economic growth of the USSR by offering minimum 'per capita' funding, whilst also punishing and 'correcting' the prisoners
328
The gulags were under strict control of the...
NKVD
329
Give an example of a major project of the gulags?
The construction of the White Sea Canal. 100,000 prisoners were employed on the project and in the end it was a failure. 25,000 died in the 1931-32 Winter
330
What caused Stalin to become 'unhinged' and even more paranoid as Figes suggests?
The suicide of his wife in 1932 which was also exaggerated by the famine in 1932-33 and an increase in workers strikes, which Stalin was blamed for
331
How did Stalin deal with growing opposition in the party such as the 'Old Bolsheviks'?
Ordering the NKVD to arrest them and many were expelled form the party
332
How did Stalin deal with opposition from the 'Ryutin Platform' who disapproved of Stalin's political direction and personality?
Crushed them by calling for their immediate execution and they were arrested. 24 expelled from the party and exiled in Moscow. Ryutin himself was sent to 10 years in prison but was shot on the orders of Stalin 1937
333
How many people died form the 1932-33 famine?
6 million
334
What was the Gosplan?
The State Planning Commission
335
What is a Totalitarian view on why Stalin used terror?
| complete control of every aspect = totalitarian
Stalin used the purges/terror:
- as a weapon to establish control of the party
- as a mechanism to control the populace
- as he sought to get rid of the 'Old Bolsheviks' who might threaten his leadership
- The NKVD carried out orders passed down to them
336
What is a Revisionist view on why Stalin used terror?
| the state had more control = revisionist
- Stalin is responsible for the terror but his personality alone is not sufficient enough to blame
- Stalin did not have a masterplan for the terror
- NKVD acted on their own initiative
- The terror was very productive anyway as control spiralled out of control > no major impact
337
What do later USSR leaders, Khrushchev and Gorbachev, say about revolution under Stalin?
That Stalin's personality cult and ruthlessness pushed revolution off course and the October 1917 revolution had been a healthier first step in creating an ideal communist society
338
How was there continuation between Lenin and Stalin?
Stalin extended the use of Terror and class warfare, as practised by Lenin, to enforce collectivisation through the destruction of the kulaks and maintain his five year plans for industry.
339
What was the Shakhty Show Trial in 1928?
53 engineers were accused of counter-revolutionary activity' and were forced to confess. 5 were executed
340
What was the 1928 Shakhty Show trail a clear indication of?
Stalin's determination to find a scapegoat for the chaos caused by his own economic policies, while delivering the message that the regime had to maintain its vigilance against those who were set to destroy it
341
How were gulags a continuation of Lenin?
As the corrective-labour camps (aka. 'corrective camps') established by Lenin were extended to create the gulags - he set the foundations
342
What is a 'gulag'?
'economic colonies' - a way of exploiting the prison population to boost economic growth
343
Who was Stalin's main opponent in the 1930s?
Bukharin and Kirov (until he was killed)
344
When did Stalin announce the 'anti-Leninist opposition?'
1934
345
When was Kirov murdered?
December 1934
346
What did the murder of Kirov allow Stalin to do?
Publish a decree a day after the assassination, giving Yagoda, head of the NKVD, powers to arrest and execute anyone found guilty of 'terrorist plotting'
347
How many people were arrested under the decree published after Kirov's assassination?
6,500 people
348
In 1935, how many 'former people' of the state were arrested , exiled or placed in camps of suspicion of instigating terrorism?
11,000
349
How many Part members were expelled by Stalin as 'anti-Leninists' in 1935?
250,000
350
Why was there a purge on 'Kremlin employees'?
To uncover reputed 'foreign spies'
351
When were the 'Great Purges'?
1936-38
352
QUOTE: Volkogonov on why Stalin's purges were necessary.
'For the Stalinist system to function, permanent purge was a necessity'
353
Who was involved in the conspiracy to plot to murder Stalin in 1936 that led to a show trial?
Zinoviev, Kamenev, Yagoda (NKVD leader) and Trotsky
354
Who was involved in the largest political show trial in March 1938?
21 Bolsheviks and Bukharin, Rykov and Yagoda and 13-others were sent to be shot
355
What was the Yezhovshchina?
The purges of ordinary citizens from 1937-38 followed on from the Great Purges in 1936-8
356
Who was Yezhov?
The head of the NKVD (SECRET POLICE) who replaced Yagoda in 1936
357
When was Yezhov replaced by Beria as the NKVD leader?
December 1938
358
In 1937, a Politburo resolution condemned 'anti-Soviet elements' which caused.................arrests including............
250,000 including artists, musicians, scientists and writers
359
Why did the purges slow down after 1938?
As the Yezhovshchina had threatened to destabilise the State and both industry and administration had suffered. Stalin used Yezhov as a scapegoat foe the failure
360
What did Stalin refer to the purges as?
'Mass cleansing'
361
How many cases were reviewed following the end of the purges?
1.5 million
362
When was Yezhov arrested and shot?
February 1940
363
By the end of the purges, what position was Stalin in?
He was in a position of 'supreme' power and his political rivals had gone and the release of so many prisoners helped restore faith in the system and its leader
364
How can the foundations of Stalin's 1941 highly centralised and authoritarian one-party sate be seen from Lenin's era?
Lenin had favoured a one-party rule, ban on factions in 1921 and forced the closure of the Constituent Assembly
365
What evidence was there in Stalin's new constitution in 1936 of democratic structures?
Universal suffrage
366
What was the 'nomenklatura'?
A system of privileges that was used to reward loyal officials
367
What was a similar characteristic of the Communist State of all leaders?
Its intolerance of opposition.
> Lenin had created the Cheka and a developed a prison camp system to deal with political enemies and Stalin intensified on this (targeted at kulaks and bourgeoisie)
368
By 1941, what was the overall outcome of Stalin's 5 year plans?
They had transformed Russia into a highly industrialised and urbanised nation, while all Russian farms had been collectivised.
369
By 1940, what industries had Russia taken over Britain?
Steel and Iron
370
Between 1938-1941, how much did spending on rearmament increase?
From 27.5 billion roubles to 71 billion roubles
371
What was the crucial weakness of Russia's economy by 1941?
Development was uneven and consumer production had been neglected. The quality of goods was poor and the central planning system was inefficient.
372
In 1941, the nation was producing less grain that under what other economic policy?
The NEP under Lenin
373
How was agriculture still behind in 1941?
There was little attention paid to modern farming techniques and there was also limited use of machinery in agriculture.
374
What helped create a far stronger working class 'proletariat'?
Urbanisation - the working class were was the backbone of the Communist Sate
375
How was a new 'mass culture' being developed?
Through education, propaganda, the leadership cult, the show trails, public celebrations, arts and culture
376
What restrictions under Stalin reflect similarity to under the Tsarist regime?
> Internal passports restricted freedom of movement (peasants in the Mir)
> Strict censorship (AIII)
377
Was Stalin a continuation of Lenin?
Some of the foundations were certainly laid out by Lenin and Stalin not only continued these, he went further than Lenin had ever done, extending one-party domination and redifining centralisation
378
When were the Internal passports introduced under Stalin and what did they do?
1932 and they restricted freedom of moment - similarly to the ex-serfs from 1961 who had to remain within their commune/Mir
379
What was the % of defence spending in 1940?
32.6%
380
Why was Stalin taken by surprise when the Nazi's invaded on 22nd June?
Due to the previous Nazi-Soviet pact signed as well as Stalin's ignorance towards intelligence reports and he seemed to miscalculate when the Germans would turn East
381
Why was Stalin's army disadvantaged upon arrival of war? (Soviet Union)
> Due to the purges of the Red Army between 1936 and 1938 which had removed most senior officers and sapped the strength of the army.
> Soviet fighting capacity had also been affected by inadequate training.
> Stalin had also re-established the 'dual command' of military units - bringing back political commissars which had been abandoned in the late 1930s. This increased Party control but hindered combat capabilities
382
By 1941, how many rifles were the Soviet Union producing per month?
100,000 rifles
383
Why was the Soviet Union not economically ready for war?
Despite the move towards rearmament in the Third Five Year Plan, there were deficiencies in the quantity and quality of equipment. Due to increased expenditure on the military, there had been insufficient investment in the collective and state farm system, which was still not producing enough to feed population.
384
How did Stalin's terror continue even during the war?
In the first weeks of the Second World War, Stalin authorised the shootings of more officers for 'cowardice' when they failed to prevent the advance of the Germans
385
Why is Stalin argued to be an 'absolute monarch' by Volkogonov?
As he wielded unrestricted political power over the Stater and its people
386
What was the invasion of the Germans on 22nd June 1941 known as?
Operation Barbarossa
387
Who did Stalin leave the public announcement of war to?
Molotov - 'our cause is just, the enemy will be smashed, victory will be ours'
388
What was the Stavka established in 1941?
Supreme Military demand responsible for all military planning
389
What was the 'dacha' and when was it withdrawn by Stalin?
A second home in the country, often used by Russians in the summer and on 27th June 1941
390
What Committee was set up by the Politburo after the announcement of war?
State Defence Committee (GKO)
391
What was the State Defence Committee in control of?
Absolute authority over the Party, state, military and other organisations and directs the wartime economy = a small group of five
392
Who did Stalin heavily rely on to organise military forces?
Zhukov, deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Red Army, who successfully defended Moscow in November 1941 and ultimately led the Soviet Troops to Berlin in April 1945
393
What did Stalin issue in 1942 when Germans threatened Stalingrad?
Order 227 = 'Not One Step Backwards'
> Any soldier who fell behind or tried top retreat was to be shot on sight, and more than 150,000 people were sent to death under this order
> The NKVD gained 'blocking units' equipped with machine guns in the rear action, to prevent desertion or retreat
394
Partisan...
is a member of a military force behind the front line opposing the control of the area by the enemy
395
What action did Stalin take to prevent political disintegration in 1941?
He dissolved the Volga German autonomous republic in 1941 and sent its people to the East. He also relied on the deportation of 'suspect' ethnic groups such as the Karacahi, the Chechens and the Crimean Tartars < argued to be an extension of the purges as they were brutally treated
396
Which ethnic groups were deported by Stalin on terms of being 'suspicious'?
```
The Karachai
The Chechens
The Ingushi
The Crimean Tartars
^ around 1.5 million people
```
397
How many people were deported by Stalin away from their homeland during the war?
1.5 million > argued as an extension of the purges as they were treated brutally and only two thirds survived the journey to Siberia
398
What was the result of Stalin putting an emphasis on the political education of troops?
Increasing numbers chose to join the Party and over the war, 3.6 million new members joined the Party of which 2.5 million of these were from the amry
399
What did the war help to strengthen politically?
The belief in the communist system and Stalin, by 1945, declared the war had shown superiority and resilience of the socialist system. It was a victory for communism over fascism.
400
What was the 'scorched earth policy'?
Destroying anything useful to the enemy before retreating. Stalin ordered both soldiers and civilians to deny the German troops basic supplies as they moved Eastwards
401
How many entire factories together with workers were moved from western Russia and the Ukraine to area's in the East?
1523
402
What other changes were made to benefit the war? (WW2)
New railways were built or redirected and the industrial bases rapidly linked to the front line
403
Why were People's Commissars established?
To supervise the different sections of wartime production such as tanks, aircraft and guns
404
What did compulsory State Orders allow?
For changes to take place in a very short time frame > full control
405
How many new industrial enterprises were built during the war in the Urals (mountains)?
3500
406
How was the food problem controlled?
Strict rationing and demanding quotas on collective farms
407
How was the morale and incentive of peasants kept high?
Peasants were allowed to keep private plots and to sell their produce
408
What foreign aid did the Soviet Union benefit from that the kept hidden from the people of Russia?
- The UK and the USA supplied essential war materials
- In total, 17.5 million tons of military equipment, vehicles, industrial supplies, and food were shipped from the West to the USSR - 94% coming from the USA
- Lend-Lease scheme in 1941, $11 billion of aid from USA
409
How many tons of military equipment was provided to the USSR from the west?
17.5 million tons
410
How many $ did the Lend-Lease scheme in 1941 provide for the USSR?
$11 billion
411
How many Soviets initially signed up after the announcement of war in Moscow?
120,000 to fight for the 'Motherland'
412
Where were the White Collar Workers sent?
To munition factories
413
What was the impact of war fro workers?
> 12 hour day
> Became normal for workers to sleep in their factories
> Factories were under martial law and discipline was tightened so severe punishments for negligence, lateness or absenteeism.
> Unauthorised absences were punishable by death
414
How was soldiers families who were taken captive affected?
They had their military ration cards confiscated.
415
How many soldiers were killed from 1941 and 1945?
8.6 million
416
How many deaths were there during the war due to starvation?
25 million deaths
417
What social problems did the Soviet Union face during the war?
> A pathetic rationing system that led to mass starvation
> Acute housing and fuel shortages, causing health problems to escalate
> Poor living conditions and working conditions
418
What role did the Gulag 'slave-labour' camps have?
Used to produce around 15% of all Soviet ammunition, as well as extracting coal and oil - mostly fro Arctic regions
419
What propaganda tactics did Stalin use to boost morale?
> People were encouraged top sacrifice themselves int he interest of 'Holy Mother Russia' against the godless invaders
> 'Everything for Victory'
> Deeply patriotic and anti-German letters were published in Pravda, to inspire heroism and self-sacrifice
420
What other cultural group enjoyed more freedoms due to the war?
Artists - in the interest of fostering an atmosphere of national reconciliation, and previously banned individuals were allowed to work again, so long as they avoided direct criticism of Marxist-Leninism
421
Which poet broadcasted a patriotic verse on the radio?
Anna Akhmatova
422
What other type of entertainment was sued to boost morale during the war?
Music - musicians gave concerts such as Maria Yudina, a concert pianist > they were given extra rations
423
How was the Church affected by war?
There was a respite in the persecution of the Churches, which were reopened. The Russian patriarch, abolished by the Tsars, was restored and clergy were released from camps. It lofted morale and people were encouraged to attend as it praised the greatest leader, Stalin.
424
How were women affected by war?
> Reaffirmation of the importance of family
> Mothers with tow or mode children were made 'heroines of the Soviet Union'
> Became essential members of the workforce and were expected to raise large families
> More than four fifths of land workers were female
> Over half a million women fought in the Soviet armed forces as pilots, snipers and even tank commanders
> 47% increase in employment for women
425
How was the importance of family shown during the war?
New measures were introduced to try combat the falling birth rate and deaths brought by the war. Taxes were increased for those with fewer than two children, restrictions on divorce were tightened, abortion was forbidden, the right to inherit family property was reestablished, and mothers of more than two were made 'heroines of the Soviet Union'
426
How many women served in the armed forces?
500,000
427
What reward did women receive for their war effort which was crucial for Soviet victory?
Little: in fact women's pay rates fell between 1930 and 1945
428
What tactics did partisan groups use?
Guerrilla tactics to harass the enemy and sabotage operations
429
By 1945, how many partisans were there?
1 million > many of them were women
430
What effect did the war have on Stalin as a leader?
He was seen as a 'national superhero' and paintings portraying him as the glorious wartime leader were seen put up in all public buildings
431
What effect did the war have on Stalin as a person?
He became much more paranoid and his suspicion of real or imagined enemies had grown. This was shown in his treatment of prisoners-of-war, whom Stalin regarded as tainted with Western values causing many of them to be transferred directly to Soviet labour camps
432
What happened to any collaborationist Soviet citizens who had fought for Germany against the USSR?
They were immediately executed
| E.g. the Cossack's were virtually wiped out in retribution for their support of German armies
433
How was victory portrayed by Stalin?
a victory for the socialist system, not the people
434
How many people by the end of the war in the Western provinces had nothing but wooden huts to live in?
25 million people
435
What benefits did the wear bring for society/ordinary people?
> More opportunity for individual initiative and helped to bring State and people closer.
> The sense of collective endeavour for the country, their government and Stalin, gave new hope of change when the war was over.
> The comradeship among soldiers helped to spread new liberal thinking
> Soviet society was opened to Western influence through the lend-lease scheme and movement of soldiers .
436
How was the USSR impacted by the Western influences post war?
Hollywood films, Western books, Western music (e..g Jazz), Western goods found their way into the USSR
437
How many civilians deaths were they due to the war?
19 million
438
How many hospitals were destroyed due to the war?
40,000
439
How many towns were destroyed due to the war?
1200
440
What are the years from 1945 to 1953 known as?
'High Stalinism'
441
What was Stalin's approach to post-war government?
'back to the future'
442
When was the GKO (State Defence Committee) dissolved?
September 1945
443
Why was Zhukov demoted by Stalin?
As he was seen as a potential rival for popular adulation. He was sent to the military command at Odessa, losing his postilion on the Central Committee of the Party
444
Who became Stalin's closest advisor?
Zhdanov - Zhdanovschina
445
When was a new Politburo elected and what changes were made to it?
March 1946 by the Central Committee and it was reduced to an advisory body, which awaited instruction on the 'official' line from Stalin
446
How many members did the Komsomol have by 1952?
16 million
447
Who launched a cultural purge in 1946 and what did this become known as?
Zhdanov and Zhdanovschina - he did this as there was a growing fear of the increased Westernisation of the war years so instead the movement stressed conformity in socialism and promoted the cult of Stalin
448
Why was the Zhdanovschina movement introduced and what did it do?
Why? was a growing fear of the increased Westernisation of the war years
What? instead the movement stressed conformity in socialism and promoted the cult of Stalin. It brought an intense persecution of artists and intellectuals
449
What did the Zhdanovschina begin with?
The purges of two literary journals published in Leningrad which were condemned for being 'anti-soviet'
450
Soviet writers who were deemed to be ....................... were sent to .................E.g........................
1. anti-soviet
2. gulags
3. Olga Ivinskaya
451
How was western influence completely blocked?
> Non-communist foreign papers were unobtainable
> Foreign radio transmissions were jammed
> Only a few 'approved' foreign books were translated into Russian
> Only pro-soviet foreign writers and artists were allowed to visit the USSR
> Very few Soviets were allowed to go to the West
452
Name a renownded international composer?
Dmitry Shostakovich
453
Who was deputy Prime Minister, a full member of the Politburo as well as the head of security apparatus?
Beria
454
What was Beria largely responsible for during High Stalinism?
The expansion of the gulag system and his dreary personality which cast a long shadow over the USSR
455
What two ministries was the reorganised NKVD split into?
1. MVD (Ministry of Internal Affairs) = controlled domestic security and the gulags
2. MGB (Ministry of State Security) took charge of counter-intelligence and espionage
456
How many wartime survivors were sent to the labour camps, suffering appalling conditions?
12 million
457
How did Stalin deal with those who had already fallen?
By removing them from history using airbrush to alter images and altering documents/history books
458
What was the Leningrad Case in 1949?
Stalin took a stand against the 'Leningrad Party' on the basis of false evidence causing several leading officials to be arrested, including the head of Gosplan and Voznesensky, an economic reformer who held a position in the Politburo
459
Why did Stalin revert to his former anti-Semitic stance?
In fear that all Jews within the USSR were potential rivals and enemies
460
What was the Mingrealian Case (Georgian purge) in 1951-52?
A purge was launched in Georgia, directed against the followers of Beria, the head of the NKVD as they were accused of collaboration with Western powers - this was aimed at weakening the authority of Beria
461
What was the Doctors Plot in 1952?
A 'conspiracy' was discovered where nine doctors failed to diagnose and treat Zhdanov professionally causing them to be arrested. This escalated and led to Stalin threatening execution if confessions were not made, and hundreds of doctors were arrested and tortured. Stalin blamed the Jews and this led to Anti-Jewish hysteria in the press
462
What led to Stalin's increasing paranoia post-war?
He suffered a mild stroke in 1946
463
How was Stalin portrayed as a 'man of the people'?
> Her hadn't visited a peasant village or kolkhoz for 25 years and spent most of his later years at his dacha (country house) meaning he mainly relied on films and written papers for his knowledge and was probably misled by hos own propagandists
464
How was Stalin's cult of personality expressed further after WW2?
> Giant portraits and statues were made in copper
> Towns were named after him (e.g. Stalingrad)
> Stalin prizes were introduced for artistic or scientific work
> Monuments of him appeared all over the USSR
465
When did Stalin die?
March 1953
466
When did Stalin request to relieve his position as Party Secretary because of his advanced age?
October 1952
467
After the party congress in 1952, what did Khrushchev announce?
The abolition of the Orgburo (Central Committee) and the Politburo replace by an enlarged Presidium > this was s hint of preparations for another purge
468
What was the impact of Stalin's death?
Hysterical public displays of grief, and crowds queued to see his embalmed body which was laid in the hall of Columns within the Party Congress Hall in Moscow.
469
Negative impact on industry of the war?
- Consumer goods still in short supply
- Stakhanovite programme maintained and wage differentials remained
- Rations maintained long after the war
- Working week and 12 hour days remained post-war
470
By ........ production had exceeded pre-war levels
1950
471
How did Stalin deal with agriculture post-war?
1948 Plan for "The Transformation of Nature" - called for tree planting to prevent soil erosion
472
How was Agriculture affected by the war?
- 100,000 farms destroyed along with livestock and machinery
- The 'scorched earth' policy caused Western regions to suffer
- The strongest workers, who formed backbone of the Red Army, had be eliminated due to the war
473
How was Agriculture affected by the war?
- 100,000 farms destroyed along with livestock and machinery
- The 'scorched earth' policy caused Western regions to suffer
- The strongest workers, who formed backbone of the Red Army, had be eliminated due to the war
474
What effect did the German siege of Leningrad have?
3 million Russians causalities in its 900 days
475
How many factories did the USSR lose due to war?
32,000 factories
476
What % increase on employment was there for women during the war?
47% increase
477
Lenin and Stalin: continuation ( +)or not (-) ?
+ Strong State, a monopolistic communist party and a desire to transform society according to policy agreed at the top and imposed on society
+ Use of terror via secret police
+ Origins of the Great purges in 1930s lay in Marxist Leninism
+ Both used extensive/influential propaganda techniques
- However, Stalin's highly conservative policies of the 1940s and unlimited personal dictatorship was a change
478
What does Tucker refer to the Stalinist area as?
A 'revolution from above' with the aim to achieve modernisation. An example of this is the collectivisation and industrial drives which together formed the building blocks for 'Socialism in one country' starting with the economic Five Year Plans
479
How can support from the peasants be seen through Stalin's era even with collectivisation according to proposed by Maurice Hindus in the 'Red Bread' published in 1931?
Support among the younger peasants as they saw what the regime was trying to achieve and many peasant were keen to learn new methods of farming - as proposed by Maurice Hindus in the 'Red Bread' published in 1931
480
When does the new Presidium (newer, bigger Politburo) start discussing Stalin's succession?
October 1952
481
When is Beria executed under Khrushchev?
December 1953
482
Who were Khrushchev's initial rivals for leadership of the Soviet Union?
Malenkov, Molotov, Bulganin and Beria
483
What happened to Malenkov?
He was expelled from the Presidium in 1957, and from the party in 1961
484
Why was Beria executed in Dec 1953?
For wanting to continue with Stalinist policies and an anti-Beria campaign was conducted in the press. His supporters were also purged
485
What role was Malenkov demoted to?
From Chairman of the Council Ministers to Minister for Power Stations. He was succeeded by Bulganin
486
Who succeeded Malenkov as Chairman of the Council Ministers?
Nikolai Bulganin
487
For how long did Khrushchev and Bulganin act as joint leaders for?
Until 1958 - when a majority in the Presidium voted for Khrushchev's dismissal however he insisted the matter be put forward to the Central Committee. Khrushchev brought those in favour of him to Moscow to vote in his favour and Khrushchev also benefited from the support of Zhukov who spoke out against Malenkov and Molotov
488
Who did Khrushchev accuse of involvement in the purges of the 1930s?
Malenkov and Molotov who became known as the 'anti-Party group'. They were expelled from the Central Committee and sent to jobs far from Moscow, while Zhukov was rewarded with seats in the Presidium
489
How did Khrushchev turn against Zhukov?
He was dismissed in October 1957 and a propaganda campaign against him accused him of hindering the Party work in the army and creating his own personality cult .
490
How did Khrushchev turn against Bulganin?
He was accused of encouraging the anti-Party group and was forced to step down in march 1958. This led Khrushchev to take over as General Secretary as well
491
Which people did Khrushchev turn his back on and eliminate as potential opposition, just as Stalin did?
1. Beria - executed 1953
2. Zhukov - expelled 1957
3. Bulganin - expelled 1958
492
How did Khrushchev initially reverse Stalinist policies?
1. Those accused in the Doctors' Plot were released
2. Beria, the police and the gulag system had all been attacked
3. A cultural 'thaw' was underway
493
What did Khrushchev announce in his 'secret speech'?
Destalinisation and delivered a blistering attack on Stalin,a accusing him of responsibility for the purges, terror, torture, mass arrests, executions and gulags. he also quoted from Lenin's testament and accused Stalin of betraying Leninist principles. he blamed Stalin for the murder of Kirov, called for the rehabilitation of Trotsky and questioned Stalin's war leadership.
494
How come the 'secret speech' did not become so secret anymore?
Copies were soon sent to foreign parties and its content soon filtered down through their Party ranks in the USSR.
495
Why was it clear that Khrushchev's 'secret speech' was for his benefit/ rise to power and not to avenge Stalin in any way?
As a young communist called Mikhail Gorbachev demanded that those responsible for Stalinist 'crimes' should be brought to justice, but Khrushchev quietly avoided comment on such suggestions.
496
What contradictions might Khrushchev's 'secret speech' have?
It condemned matter such as autocratic leadership, undermining of the Party and the brutal suppression of Party members ( of which Khrushchev was guilty of himself). It also argued that economic controls, strong leadership, a single Party and elimination of factions were perfectly legitimate.
497
What did Khrushchev's speech inspire to happen?
Uprisings in favour of reform in Georgia, Poland and Hungary (1953). Khrushchev's support for the use of force to crush these risings shows limitation of his reformist policies/ continuation of Stalin.
498
What two goals did Khrushchev strive to achieve from 1957 that contradicted communism?
1. Democratisation - involve weakening the traditional bureaucracy to give more responsibility to the people
2. Decentralisation - give more initiative to the localities
499
What two area's was the Party split into in 1962?
Urban and rural sections at all levels
500
What was the increase in membership of the Party from 1956 to 1964? What type of support did this bring?
1956 - 7 million
1964 - 11 million
- This brought more working-class members while reducing the power of higher level bureaucrats
501
What other changes were main in order to achieve the 'twin goals'? (decentralisation and democratisation)
- New rules issued, limiting how long Party officials could serve
- The role of local soviets was increased and comrade courts to handle minor offences were revived
- Non-Party members were encouraged to take supervisory roles and some were invited to party congress
- Khrushchev visited the villages and towns - showing a personal desire for first-hand contact with the people
- Economic decentralisation was pursued
502
What was the main reason for the power struggle after Stalin's death?
About the political direction that the USSR should take
503
Who's economic proposal did Khrushchev reject that suggested moving the focus away from heavy to light industry?
Malenkov
504
In what year was the Sixth Five Year Plan?
1956
505
In what year was the Seven year plan introduced and the establishment of Supreme Economic Council?
1959
506
In what year was the Seventh Five Year Plan?
1961
507
Economic Stalinist policies that caused many issues:
1. Ministers of Moscow (who were often 'out of touch') set different industrial targets for each enterprises
2. Managers preferred to 'play it safe; and hide the productive capacity of their enterprises so that their targets were not raised
3. Output targets were assessed in weight causing heavy goods to favour over lighter ones and this was another disincentive to modernisation
4. Increasing amounts of capital investments were needed even to stand still as resources were being used inefficiently
508
Why was the Sixth Five Year Plan a failure?
Targets were over-optimistic and the plan had top be abandoned after two years
509
What actions in 1957 helped to move the Soviet economy towards decentralisation?
1. 60 Moscow ministries were abolished
2. The USSR was divided into 105 economic regions, each with it sown local economic council (sovnarkhoz) to plan and supervise economic affairs
^ this had an ulterior political motive in that it removed Malenkov's men and extended Khrushchev's 's patronage network in localities.
510
What were Khrushchev's local economic councils called?
sovnarkhoz
511
Advantages of a centralised economy?
- allowed the country to prepare for war quicker
- allowed Grand projects
- same opportunity's for success in all enterprises as same investment amounts
512
Advantages of a decentralised economy?
- allows people to deal with their own needs at local levels
| - development of consumer goods and more modern industries
513
Disadvantages of a centralised economy?
- Ministers 'out of touch'
| - Unrealistic targets never met caused false statistics and corruption
514
Disadvantages of decentralised economy?
- Country not unified in its aims
- Industries not supported by the state fell behind
- Lower incentive to work and modernise
515
What did the Seven-year plan of 1959 have the emphasis on?
Emphasis on improving standards of living for ordinary people, with a 40-hour week and a 40% wage rise promised by 1965. There was a shift in priorities from the old heavy industries to the previously-neglected 'modern industries'
516
What % wage rise did Khrushchev promise by 1965?
40%
517
What was the slogan of the Seven-year plan?
'Catch up and overtake the USA by 1970'
| ^ catching up with the West was a constant theme of all the leaders of Russia, even the Tsars
518
Give some positives of the seven-year plans and the industrial change under Khrushchev's
1. Vast expansion of chemical industries
2. Housing factories to produce prefabricated sections for new flats
3. increased production of consumer goods
4. greater exploitation of the USSR's resources - natural gas, oil and coal - and the building of power stations
519
How was communications and technology improved throughout the Khrushchev's period?
- Many railway lines were electrified
- Air transport was expanded
- The USSR launched the Earth's first artificial satellite called Sputnik = 1957
- The icebreaker Lenin was launched which was the world's first civil nuclear-powered ship = 1959
- Yuri Gagarin became the first human in space = 1963
520
What was the increase in TV sets from 1958 to 1965?
TV sets:
1958 = 1 million
1965 = 3.5 million
521
Did the USSR come anywhere close to catching up with he USA?
No, the gap was narrowed however by 1958, Soviet industrial growth began to slow down significantly, annum fell to 7.5% in 1964 from 10% in 1950s.
522
What previous policy had left Russian agriculture in a desperate state where only a third of farms were left operational?
The 'scorched earth' policy during the war
523
When was Khrushchev's 's initiative to develop 'virgin lands' and build 'agrocities' introduced?
During the Fifth Five Year plan in 1953
524
What was Khrushchev's speciality argued to be in?
Agriculture - he was interested in farming matters, and loved visiting the countryside and the peasants
525
What changes were introduced to incentivise peasants to produce more?
1. The price paid for state procurement of grain and other agricultural goods were raised
2. Quotas were reduced
3. Taxes were reduced
4. Quotas on peasants' private plots were cut
5. Collectives were allowed to set their own production rates.
526
What was the % increase of grain prices between 1953 and 1956?
25% grain prices increase
527
How was production amounts increased/
- a 1962 campaign to increase use of chemical fertiliser
- increase in number of farms which were connected to the electricity grid
- increase in the use of farm machinery
- encouragement to merge collectives to create larger farms
528
By 1956, how many million hectares of 'virgin land' had been ploughed for wheat?
35.9 million hectares
529
Which members of society were encouraged to spend time on the new farms, helping top build settlements, put up fences, dig ditches and build roads?
The Soviet youth movement = the Komsomol
530
What did Khrushchev believe the answer to the USSR's food shortages would be?
Launching campaigns for new crops, such as maize and he encouraged the production of cornflakes (made of maize)
531
What were 'agrocities'?
Huge collective farm/towns which was an attempt to replicated urban conditions of work and living on the land and sod destroying the old, conservative, rural villages = making for greater efficiency. This never got beyond the visionary stage!
532
What were the failures of the Khrushchev's new agricultural measures?
1. Failed to encourage the peasants to put more effort into their work on the collectives and state farms
2. the new pricing system proved a failure because state officials kept altering the prices, so farmers found it difficult to plan ahead
3. The selling of tractors to collectives was less effective than it might have been as there was few farmers capable of carrying out repair
4. The Virgin Land Scheme failed due to the climatic conditions (which had not been considered) were poor due to land erosion and infertile soil. Forced Khrushchev to import grain as a result
533
How did elderly people benefit from Khrushchev's reign?
Pension arrangements were improved and even peasants became eligible for a state pension
534
What could be argued undermines any claim that Khrushchev's USSR was an equal society?
Privileges still remained in the form of non-wage payments, access to scare commodities, health care and holidays for those at the higher level of political hierarchy.
535
did living standards (Khrushchev's main aim) actually improve?
Although living standards were better than in earlier years, they were significantly lower than in most industrialised states.
536
What did the cultural 'thaw' bring?
A greater personal freedom for Soviet citizens
537
What was 'Intourist' established by Khrushchev?
This allowed foreigners to visit the USSR and witness Soviet achievements at first hand. Seeing Westerns at close range for many ordinary citizens was a transformative experience which opened new horizons
538
Give a difference between culture under Stalin and Khrushchev
Khrushchev allowed Western influences - e.g. the World festival of Youth staged in Moscow in 1957, whereas Stalin repressed anything of the sort. Under Khrushchev, young people saw the dress, music (JAZZ) and behaviour of Westerners as exciting and 'modern'
539
What did changes in youth attitudes bring?
More incidents of petty vandalism and hooliganism, while in universities they were incidents of students boycotting lecturers and protesting against controls > this became a serious threat to the system
540
Who was refused acceptance of his Novel prize for his book Dr Zhivago?
Boris Pasternak - he was also expelled from the Soviet Union of writers and heavily criticised in the Pravda
541
What impact did Khrushchev have on the churches?
- Khrushchev revived the socialist campaign against the churches and atheism was brought into school curriculum, children were banned from church services from 1961 and it was forbidden for parents to teach religion to their children
- mass closure on monasteries = reduction from 22,000 in 1959 to 8000 by 1965.
- Pilgrimages were banned
542
What was Khrushchev's view on ethnic minorities/
He made no moves towards greater independence for the nationalities
543
Tamizdat...
printing banned writings abroad
544
Samizdat...
dissident activity whereby individuals reproduced works that would not pass the censor, and distributed them - illegal sharing's of foreign work underground
545
What new group emerged under Khrushchev with he return of greater intellectual and artistic freedom?
'cultural dissidents'
546
Give an example of a student group that spread and produced dissident literature in underground societies
'The Youngest Society of Geniuses' in mid-1960s
547
Give an example of a dissident magazine established
Syntaxis
548
Give an example of how subjects of cultural dissidents were treated under Khrushchev
Alexander Ginzburg, editor and publisher of Syntaxis, was sent to labour camps for exposing human rights abuses and demanding reforms
549
What were the illegal recordings known as?
Magnitizdat
550
When did the limitations of the 'thaw' become apparent?
in 1962 when Khrushchev attended an Art Exhibition (Manezh) at which several nonconformists artists were exhibiting. He dismissed their work and suggested they should continue in private.
551
Why did people try to oust Khrushchev in 1957?
As the hardliners could not forgive his attack on the Stalinist policies (e.g. Molotov, Malenkov, Kaganovich). Khrushchev survived by appealing to the wider Central Committee over the vote against him, the end result was the expulsion of the 'anti-Party'
552
In 1956, how many former prisoners were rehabilitated?
9 million
553
By 1957, what % of the Soviet prison population were political prisoners?
2%
554
General view of opposition to Khrushchev
- Outright opposition among ordinary Soviet citizens was minimal. Having been conditioned by the Stalinist Terror, most ordinary people remained silent. However, this is not say there was no dissent.
- Uprisings in countries under Soviet control (e..g Hungary, Poland) who wanted more freedom.
555
Who was Khrushchev ousted by in 1964?
A coup orchestrated by Brezhnev, Podgorny and Suslov
556
What was Khrushchev's initial reaction to the criticisms put forward in the Politburo?
He refused to resign, but was denied access to the media, which may have been able to whip up popular support to resist his attackers
557
Khrushchev had little option but to sign his resignation. How was his resignation announced?
A public announcement was made that Khrushchev had resigned through 'advanced age and ill health'. This was mainly to appease the international community. Only the Pravda were granted access to publish his resignation
558
Reasons for Khrushchev's fall from power?
1. Personal/style of rule > 'one-man style'
2. Decentralisation > caused offence to members of Politburo and hardline Stalinists
3. Agriculture > failure of Virgin Land Schemes
4. Industry > consumer goods was very unpopular
5. Military > offended military by wanting to reduce expenditure and poor dealings abroad
6. Foreign policy > Cuban Missile Crisis was embarrassing
559
What happened to Khrushchev after this?
He was granted a personal pension and live din obscurity outside Moscow writing his memoirs, which were published in Europe and the USA in 1970. He died in 1971 but received no state funeral
