Paper 2 - Section A Mixed Flashcards
1(c) Explain the policies governments may use to lower fertility rates.
Providing access to family planning services – Governments promote the use of contraceptives by ensuring easy availability and affordability. This includes distributing birth control pills, condoms, and offering sterilization services.
Improving infant and maternal healthcare – When child mortality rates are high, parents often have more children as a precaution. Improving healthcare reduces infant mortality, thus reducing the need for large families.
Education and awareness campaigns – Educating people, particularly women, about the benefits of smaller families can help reduce fertility rates. Public campaigns, school curricula, and media initiatives play a role in changing attitudes toward family size.
Economic incentives and disincentives – Some governments introduce taxation policies, such as higher taxes for larger families or financial benefits for smaller families, to influence birth rates.
Female empowerment and gender equality – When women have access to education and employment opportunities, they tend to delay marriage and childbirth, reducing overall fertility rates.
Strict population control policies – Some countries have implemented direct policies like the “Stop at Two” campaign
Legalization of abortion and sterilization – Providing legal and safe abortion services and voluntary sterilization options can contribute to lowering fertility rates.
2(c) Explain how international migration can have negative impacts on source areas.
Brain drain and skill shortages – Many migrants from LICs/MICs are skilled professionals, such as doctors, engineers, and teachers. Their departure creates a talent gap in essential sectors, reducing the country’s development potential.
Labour shortages in key industries – Migration leads to a depletion of the workforce, particularly among young and economically active individuals. This can affect industries such as agriculture, healthcare, and education.
Economic dependency on remittances – While remittances provide financial support to families, they may create an overreliance on external income sources rather than local economic development.
Demographic imbalances – When a significant portion of the working-age population migrates, the remaining population consists mostly of dependents (children and elderly individuals). This increases the dependency ratio and puts pressure on social services.
Social and family disruptions – Migration often separates families, leading to emotional distress, weaker community bonds, and in some cases, increased divorce rates or social fragmentation.
Loss of cultural and human capital – Migration can erode traditional cultural values and community cohesion as people leave their hometowns for extended periods or permanently.
Reduced tax revenue and economic stagnation – With fewer working-age individuals, the government collects less tax revenue, limiting its ability to invest in infrastructure, education, and public services.
3(c) Explain the issues for the provision of services in rural areas.
Providing services in rural areas is challenging due to several factors:
Low population density – It is difficult to justify investing in expensive infrastructure such as schools, hospitals, and roads when the population is widely dispersed.
Financial constraints – Rural areas typically generate less tax revenue, leading to underfunded public services.
Limited accessibility – Many rural residents have to travel long distances to access essential services.
Workforce shortages – Professionals such as doctors, teachers, and skilled workers often prefer urban employment.
Risk of service closures – Schools, post offices, and medical facilities in rural areas often close due to declining demand.
1(c) Suggest two reasons why the proportion of the population aged 60 or over is low in some countries.
High death rates and low life expectancy – In some low-income countries (LICs), healthcare systems are underdeveloped, leading to high mortality rates at younger ages. Poor access to medical care, malnutrition, and diseases such as HIV/AIDS and malaria contribute to shorter lifespans.
Example: Many Sub-Saharan African countries have a low life expectancy, resulting in a small proportion of elderly people.
High birth rates and youthful population structure – Some countries experience high fertility rates, leading to a large proportion of young people in the population. This demographic pattern reduces the overall percentage of elderly people.
Example: Niger and Uganda have some of the highest birth rates in the world, which means a smaller proportion of their populations are elderly.
Poor healthcare and living conditions – Limited access to healthcare, unsafe drinking water, and malnutrition reduce life expectancy. Elderly people in such countries face higher mortality rates due to treatable conditions.
Example: In Afghanistan, poor medical facilities and long-term conflicts have led to low elderly populations.
Political instability, war, and conflict – In war-torn countries, many people die before reaching old age, either due to violence, forced displacement, or disruption of healthcare systems.
Example: Countries like Syria, Yemen, and South Sudan have seen large-scale loss of life, reducing the number of elderly people.
Out-migration of older individuals – In some cases, elderly people migrate to other countries for better living conditions, medical care, or to reunite with family.
Example: Some elderly populations in Eastern European countries move to Western Europe to access better healthcare.
2(c) Explain how international migration can have positive impacts on receiving/destination areas.
Increase in labor supply – Migrants fill labor shortages in various sectors, especially in construction, healthcare, and agriculture.
Example: The UK and Germany rely on migrant workers for seasonal agricultural jobs.
Reduction of skill shortages – Many migrants are highly skilled professionals, such as doctors, engineers, and IT specialists, helping destination countries address labor market gaps.
Example: The USA, Canada, and Australia attract skilled migrants through points-based immigration systems.
Economic growth through entrepreneurship – Migrants start businesses and invest in local economies, creating jobs.
Example: In the USA, over 40% of Fortune 500 companies were founded by immigrants or their children.
Cultural diversity and social benefits – Migration brings new cultural perspectives, enriching societies through food, music, and traditions.
Example: The multicultural communities in London and New York showcase the benefits of cultural diversity.
Higher birth rates and population rejuvenation – In aging societies, migrants help increase the birth rate, balancing population decline.
Example: In Germany and Japan, migrants are seen as a solution to aging populations and labor shortages.
3(c) Explain two planning issues in urban areas in LICs/MICs.
Housing and informal settlements (shanty towns) – Many LICs and MICs face housing shortages, leading to rapid growth of slums.
Example: Mumbai’s Dharavi slum has poor sanitation and overcrowding.
Inadequate infrastructure and utilities – Many cities lack proper roads, clean water, and electricity, creating public health and economic problems.
Example: Lagos, Nigeria struggles with poor waste management and unreliable electricity.
1(c) Explain why birth rates may vary with the income of the parents.
Low income → High birth rates – In low-income families, children are seen as economic assets who can work and contribute to household income or support parents in old age. Additionally, limited access to contraceptives and education can lead to higher birth rates.
Example: In many LICs (e.g., Niger), families have many children to help with farm work and provide financial support in the future.
High income → Low birth rates – In high-income families, raising children is expensive due to the costs of education, healthcare, and housing. Women in wealthier families also tend to prioritize education and careers, leading to fewer children and later childbirth.
Example: In HICs (e.g., Japan and Germany), where living costs are high, birth rates have declined as couples have fewer children.
High income → High birth rates in some cases – Wealthy families who can afford childcare, healthcare, and schooling may choose to have larger families if they value having multiple children. However, this is less common in HICs.
2(c) Explain how both distance and cost can influence internal migration.
- Distance as a Barrier to Migration
The greater the distance, the less likely people are to migrate because:
Moving further is more expensive (transportation costs increase).
Migrants know less about distant areas, making them hesitant to move.
Families and social ties discourage long-distance migration.
Example: In Brazil, most migrants settle in neighboring regions rather than distant areas like the Amazon. - Cost as a Limiting Factor
Migration is expensive because of:
Travel costs – Bus, train, or flight tickets can be costly for low-income migrants.
Housing costs – Many people avoid moving to expensive cities due to high rent.
Job uncertainty – Some migrants cannot afford to relocate without a guaranteed job.
Example: In India, many rural migrants move to cheaper cities rather than expensive metropolitan areas like Mumbai.
Suggest the factors which may have attracted retailing to an out-of-town location.
Good transport links – The retail park is located near a main road, allowing easy access for customers and delivery vehicles.
Availability of large space for retail units – The location offers large plots of land, enabling the development of big stores, parking lots, and warehouses.
Proximity to residential areas – Retail parks are often near suburban communities where people need shopping facilities.
Lower land costs compared to city centers – Retailers prefer out-of-town locations where land is cheaper, allowing for larger stores and parking spaces.
3(c) Explain the issues for urban areas resulting from the development of out-of-town retail parks.
Decline of city center businesses – Retail parks attract shoppers away from city centers, causing small businesses to close.
Example: In the UK, many high streets have struggled due to competition from retail parks like Bluewater.
Traffic congestion and pollution – Out-of-town retail parks increase car dependency, leading to higher emissions and congestion near highways.
Example: Large shopping centers near London have caused severe weekend traffic jams.
Job displacement in city centers – As customers move to out-of-town retail parks, jobs in city center shops are lost.
Environmental degradation – New developments result in deforestation, loss of green spaces, and increased flooding risk due to land clearance.
Example: USA’s expansion of suburban retail parks has contributed to urban sprawl and loss of farmland.
1(c) Explain why birth rates are decreasing in many MICs.
Increased Use of Contraceptives and Family Planning – Many MICs have improved access to contraceptives and reproductive health services, allowing families to control the number and timing of births.
Example: In Brazil, government-supported family planning programs have contributed to a decline in birth rates.
Greater Education and Empowerment of Women – As more women receive education and enter the workforce, they tend to delay marriage and childbirth, leading to lower birth rates.
Example: In Mexico, more women are prioritizing education and careers, leading to smaller family sizes.
Economic Factors and Cost of Raising Children – In many MICs, the cost of raising children (education, healthcare, housing) has increased, making families opt for fewer children.
Declining Infant Mortality Rates – Improvements in healthcare and nutrition mean that fewer children die at an early age, reducing the need for families to have many children as a survival strategy.
Example: In India, lower infant mortality rates have contributed to smaller family sizes.
Urbanization and Changing Lifestyles – As more people move to urban areas, where space is limited and living costs are high, they tend to have fewer children.
Example: In Turkey, urbanization has led to a cultural shift toward smaller families.
2(c) Explain how the physical environment can act as an obstacle to international migration.
Rivers and Seas as Barriers – Large bodies of water can prevent or delay migration, requiring boats, resources, and safe passage.
Example: Many migrants attempt dangerous sea crossings from Libya to Italy across the Mediterranean Sea, often facing shipwrecks and drownings.
Mountain Ranges and Harsh Terrain – High-altitude mountains or dense forests can block or slow migration.
Example: The Himalayas act as a natural barrier for migration between Nepal, India, and China.
Deserts and Extreme Climates – Deserts lack water and shelter, making migration risky.
Example: Migrants crossing the Sahara Desert face extreme heat, dehydration, and lack of food.
Natural Hazards and Disaster-Prone Areas – Some areas are prone to earthquakes, hurricanes, or floods, discouraging migration.
Example: Coastal regions in Bangladesh are at risk of flooding, discouraging settlement.
3(c) Explain the challenges caused by the changing central business district (CBD).
The changing nature of CBDs creates urban, economic, and environmental challenges:
Decline of Traditional Retailers – As big brands close due to online competition, vacant stores create economic decline and unemployment in CBDs.
Example: Many US city centers have seen retail closures, leading to increased unemployment.
Increased Property Costs – Rising property values make rent unaffordable for small businesses, limiting diversity in retail.
Example: In Hong Kong, high rent costs have forced out local businesses.
Traffic Congestion and Pollution – Increased urban activity in CBDs leads to traffic jams and air pollution.
Example: London’s Oxford Street suffers from extreme congestion due to high commercial activity.
Balancing Conservation with Development – Governments struggle to modernize CBDs while preserving historic buildings and landmarks.
1(b) Outline two problems for a country caused by a low population growth rate.
Aging Population and Increased Dependency Ratio
A low population growth rate often leads to an aging population, meaning there are fewer working-age individuals to support the elderly.
Economic impact: Increased pension and healthcare costs strain government budgets.
Example: Japan, where a shrinking workforce supports a growing elderly population, leading to increased tax burdens on younger generations.
Labor Shortages and Economic Decline
With fewer young people entering the workforce, there is a shortage of workers, affecting industries such as healthcare, manufacturing, and services.
Economic impact: Lower productivity, slower GDP growth, and difficulty in sustaining economic development.
Example: Germany has experienced labor shortages in various industries, leading to policies encouraging immigration to fill workforce gaps.
1(c) Explain how low rates of natural increase of population may be linked to high levels of development.
Higher Education Levels and Career Prioritization
In developed countries, higher education and career opportunities often lead to delayed marriages and childbirth, reducing birth rates.
Example: Many women in Sweden and Canada pursue higher education and careers before starting families, contributing to lower natural increase rates.
Improved Healthcare and Lower Infant Mortality
Better healthcare services and low infant mortality rates reduce the need for families to have many children.
Example: In France, access to universal healthcare and maternal support programs has led to stable but lower birth rates.
Urbanization and High Living Costs
In urban areas, where most people in developed countries live, the high cost of housing, childcare, and education discourages large families.
Example: Singapore’s high cost of living has led to declining fertility rates despite government efforts to encourage births.
Availability of Contraceptives and Family Planning
Widespread access to contraception allows couples to control family size, reducing birth rates.
Example: The Netherlands has a low natural increase due to strong reproductive health services and family planning programs.
Changing Social Norms and Gender Equality
In developed societies, there is less social pressure to have large families, and more women choose child-free or smaller family lifestyles.
Example: Japan has seen a cultural shift where many young adults delay or avoid marriage, reducing birth rates.
2(b) Suggest two ways in which source regions benefit from international migration.
Remittances Boost the Economy
Migrants send money back home, helping families and stimulating economic growth.
Example: The Philippines receives billions in remittances from overseas workers, contributing to national GDP.
Reduction in Unemployment and Resource Pressure
Emigration reduces job competition, easing youth unemployment and improving living conditions.
Example: Mexico, where migration to the USA reduces local unemployment in rural areas.
2(c) Explain how international borders can be obstacles to migration.
Strict Immigration Laws and Visa Requirements
Many countries have complex visa processes and immigration restrictions, limiting entry.
Example: The USA’s visa system makes it difficult for low-skilled workers to migrate legally.
Physical Barriers (Fences, Walls, and Natural Features)
Borders often have physical barriers like walls, fences, deserts, and mountains that hinder migration.
Example: The US-Mexico border wall and the Mediterranean Sea for African migrants to Europe.
High Travel Costs and Corruption
Migrants may struggle to afford transportation and legal fees, while corruption at borders may further complicate movement.
Example: Syrian refugees often rely on smugglers to cross borders due to expensive legal routes.
Cultural and Language Barriers
Different languages, customs, and social attitudes make migration more challenging.
Example: Migrants from the Middle East to Europe face difficulties due to language barriers and cultural differences.
3(b) Suggest two problems for a country caused by the rapid growth of its largest city.
Overcrowding and Housing Shortages
As populations in large cities grow rapidly, there is insufficient housing, leading to slums and informal settlements.
Example: Mumbai, India, where millions live in overcrowded slums like Dharavi.
Traffic Congestion and Pollution
Larger populations result in increased vehicle usage, leading to traffic jams, air pollution, and poor public transport systems.
Example: Jakarta, Indonesia, faces severe congestion and smog due to rapid urban growth.
3(c) Explain how a large city can become classified as a ‘world city’.
Economic Influence and Headquarters of Global Companies
A city with major banks, financial markets, and headquarters of multinational corporations is often considered a world city.
Example: New York City is home to Wall Street and the United Nations Headquarters.
International Transport Hubs and Connectivity
Cities with major international airports, ports, and transport infrastructure are considered world cities.
Example: London Heathrow Airport connects London to global markets and tourism.
Cultural and Media Influence
Cities known for fashion, film, arts, and global media networks gain world city status.
Example: Paris is a fashion capital and home to global media networks.
Political and Diplomatic Importance
Hosting major global summits, embassies, and international organizations contributes to world city classification.
Example: Brussels is the political center of the European Union.
1(b) Suggest two reasons for an increase in life expectancy
Improvements in Medical Infrastructure
Expansion of hospitals, clinics, and healthcare facilities has increased access to treatment.
Example: Kenya has seen a rise in vaccination programs and maternal healthcare services, reducing infant and child mortality rates.
Better Disease Control and Treatment
Advancements in treating infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis have contributed to longer life expectancy.
Example: Increased distribution of antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV patients in Kenya has improved survival rates.
1(c) Explain how low life expectancy of the population may be linked to low levels of development.
Limited Access to Healthcare Services
Poor countries often lack adequate healthcare infrastructure, leading to high mortality rates from preventable diseases.
Example: In Chad, a lack of doctors and hospitals results in high death rates from treatable conditions like malaria.
Poor Nutrition and Food Insecurity
Malnourishment weakens immune systems, making people more vulnerable to diseases and reducing life expectancy.
Example: In Sudan, food shortages due to drought and conflict lead to high child mortality rates.
High Infant Mortality Rates
In less developed countries, limited maternal healthcare leads to high infant and child mortality, lowering the average life expectancy.
Example: Afghanistan has one of the highest infant mortality rates due to poor medical facilities and unsafe childbirth conditions.
Lack of Sanitation and Clean Water
In many low-income countries (LICs), people lack access to clean drinking water, leading to waterborne diseases such as cholera and dysentery.
Example: In Bangladesh, contaminated water sources cause frequent disease outbreaks, reducing life expectancy.
Limited Economic Resources and Infrastructure
Governments with low GDPs struggle to fund public health programs, impacting healthcare quality and availability.
Example: In Haiti, a weak economy has resulted in poor healthcare and education services, contributing to low life expectancy.
2(b) Suggest two pull factors why internally displaced people may return to their source area.
Improvement in Safety and Security
If the conflict or disaster that forced migration ends, people feel safe returning home.
Example: Many Syrian refugees returned home after ceasefires in certain areas.
Family and Cultural Connections
Strong ties to family, land, and community often encourage displaced individuals to go back.
Example: In Iraq, displaced people returned to Mosul after the city was rebuilt post-ISIS occupation.
2(c) Explain how forced internal migration may have negative impacts on receiving/destination areas.
Increased Pressure on Public Services
A sudden influx of migrants overwhelms schools, hospitals, and water supply systems.
Example: South Sudanese refugees in Ugandan settlements have strained local resources, leading to shortages.
Unemployment and Competition for Jobs
Migrants increase job competition, which can lead to unemployment and resentment among locals.
Example: In Colombia, Venezuelan migrants compete with locals for low-wage jobs, causing tensions.
Overcrowding and Housing Shortages
Many migrants settle in slums or informal settlements, leading to poor living conditions and increased disease risk.
Example: In Dhaka, Bangladesh, slums have grown due to internal displacement from flooding.
Social and Cultural Tensions
Migrants may face discrimination and social exclusion due to cultural or religious differences.
Example: In Kenya, tensions arose between locals and Somali refugees in Dadaab camp.
3(b) Outline two benefits of megacities for the provision of services.
Economies of Scale in Service Provision
Large populations make public transport, healthcare, and education more efficient and cost-effective.
Example: Tokyo’s subway system serves millions daily, reducing transportation costs per passenger.
Higher Investment in Infrastructure and Innovation
Megacities attract more investment in hospitals, schools, and utilities, leading to better services.
Example: Shanghai’s smart city initiatives have improved energy efficiency and waste management.
