Paper 2 - Section B Mixed

Question 1

4(a)(i) Define the term infant mortality rate (IMR).

Answer 1

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) means how many babies die before their first birthday, out of every 1,000 babies that are born alive in one year.

✔️ It includes:

deaths of babies under 1 year old

only babies that were born alive

out of every 1,000 live births per year

Example definition:
The Infant Mortality Rate is the number of babies who die before age one for every 1,000 live births in a year.

Question 2

4(a)(ii) Briefly explain why IMR and fertility rate may be related.

Answer 2

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) and fertility rate are linked. When more babies die young, people often have more children. When fewer babies die, people usually have fewer children.

✔️ Key reasons:

Safety backup: In places where many babies die (high IMR), parents have more children just in case some don’t survive.

Support in old age: In poorer countries, parents rely on children to care for them later in life. If many babies die, they have more to make sure some grow up.

Better healthcare = fewer babies: If a country’s healthcare gets better, fewer babies die. Parents then feel safer having fewer children.

Family planning: In places with low IMR, women often have more access to contraception and education, so they choose to have smaller families.

Question 3

4(b) Using examples, explain why infant mortality rates are high in some countries.

Answer 3

Infant Mortality Rates (IMR) are often high in low-income countries because of problems with healthcare, nutrition, and living conditions.

✔️ Main reasons:

Poor medical care during birth: Many hospitals don’t have enough trained doctors or equipment. In parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, many babies are born at home without help from skilled health workers, which makes birth more risky.

Not enough food: Mothers and babies may not get the food they need to stay strong. In places like Somalia and South Sudan, hunger makes babies more likely to get sick and die.

Dirty water and bad toilets: In countries like Bangladesh and Ethiopia, unsafe water can spread diseases like diarrhea and cholera, which often cause babies to die.

Lots of diseases: Infections like malaria, pneumonia, and HIV/AIDS are common in places like Nigeria and India, and they can be deadly for infants.

Teen pregnancies: In some cultures, girls get married and have babies very young. This can lead to health problems during birth. For example, Niger has many teen pregnancies and a high infant death rate.

Unhealthy mothers and no checkups: In countries like Afghanistan, many pregnant women don’t get health checkups, which means problems during pregnancy or early birth may not be treated in time. This raises the risk for the baby.

Question 4

5(a) Describe the impacts of urban-rural migration on rural areas.

Answer 4

✅ Positive Effects:
More money for rural areas: When more people move in, they need homes and services. This helps small businesses grow. For example, villages near London in the UK have become richer because of city people moving there.

Better roads and services: As more people move in, governments may improve roads, build more schools, and add hospitals to support the growing population.

Keeping traditions alive: Some people move to the countryside for a peaceful, community-focused life. This helps keep local culture and traditions strong.

❌ Negative Effects:
House prices go up: Wealthy newcomers can afford higher prices, so local people may not be able to buy or rent homes anymore. In Cornwall, UK, many locals struggle with this.

Services get crowded: More people means more pressure on hospitals, schools, and buses, which can make life harder for everyone.

Farmland disappears: To build more houses, farmland is often used up, which can hurt food production.

More traffic and pollution: With more cars on the roads, there’s more traffic and pollution in the countryside.

Tension between locals and newcomers: Sometimes, people who’ve lived in the countryside for a long time feel different from the new arrivals, especially if they have different lifestyles or more money. This can cause problems in the community.

Question 5

5(b) With the aid of examples, explain the role of pull factors in urban-rural migration.

Answer 5

🧍‍♂️ Social Pull Factors:
Better lifestyle: People often move to rural areas for peace and quiet. For example, in France, many retired people leave busy cities like Paris for the countryside.
Safer places to live: Cities can have more crime, so families sometimes move to rural areas where it’s safer.
💰 Economic Pull Factors:
Cheaper living: Houses and everyday costs are often lower in the countryside. In the UK, people are moving from expensive cities like London to rural towns to save money.
Work from home: More people can now do their jobs online, so they don’t need to live in the city and can still earn the same salary from rural homes.
🌳 Environmental Pull Factors:
Cleaner air: The countryside usually has less pollution, so people move there for better health.
More outdoor space: Rural areas have nature, farms, forests, and places to hike or fish – perfect for people who enjoy being outdoors.
🏛 Political Pull Factors:
Government support: Some governments try to help rural areas grow by giving rewards like tax cuts to people or businesses that move there.

Question 6

4(a)(i) Define the term food security.

Answer 6

Food security means that everyone, at all times, has enough food that is safe, healthy, and nutritious to live an active and healthy life.
✔️ It includes:
Having enough food (quantity)
Having safe and healthy food (quality)
Making sure all people have access to it, all the time
Example definition:Food security means people always have enough safe and healthy food to stay strong and live well.

Question 7

4(a)(ii) Suggest two ways in which food security in a country can be threatened.

Answer 7

🌍 1. Climate change and extreme weather
Bad weather like droughts, floods, and storms can damage crops and reduce the amount of food farmers can grow.
Example: In East Africa, long droughts have made it hard to grow food.
👨‍👩‍👧 2. Population growth
When more people are born, more food is needed. If food production doesn’t keep up, there can be shortages.
Example: In countries like India and Nigeria, the growing population makes it harder to feed everyone.
⚔️ 3. War and conflict
Fighting and political problems can stop food from being grown, transported, or sold. This can cause hunger and famine.
Example: In Yemen, war has made it hard for people to get enough food.
💸 4. Economic problems and high food prices
When a country’s economy is weak, or prices go up too much, people can’t afford to buy enough food.
Example: In Venezuela, very high inflation has led to food shortages.

Question 8

4(b) Using examples, explain the roles of technology and innovation in overcoming food shortages.

Answer 8

Genetically modified (GM) crops – GM crops are designed to be drought-resistant, pest-resistant, and high-yielding, increasing food production.

Example: Golden Rice in Asia is fortified with vitamin A to combat malnutrition.

Irrigation technology – Advanced irrigation systems conserve water while improving crop yields.

Example: Drip irrigation in Israel allows water-efficient farming in arid regions.

Precision agriculture – The use of satellites, drones, and sensors helps farmers monitor soil conditions, water needs, and pest infestations.

Example: In the USA, precision farming has increased crop yields while reducing fertilizer use.

Hydroponics and vertical farming – These techniques allow food to be grown in urban areas without soil, reducing transportation costs and improving food access.

Example: Singapore uses vertical farms to boost local food production.

Improved storage and transport – Cold storage and better supply chains reduce food wastage and ensure a steady supply of food.

Example: In India, improved cold storage facilities have helped reduce post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables.

Question 9

5(a) Describe the impacts of rural-urban migration on rural areas.

Answer 9

✅ Positive Effects:
More money sent home: People who move to cities or other countries often send money back to their families, helping them live better.

Example: In Mexico, money sent from the USA helps rural families pay for food, school, and healthcare.

Less pressure on land: With fewer people farming the land, there’s less damage like overgrazing or cutting down trees.

Example: In India, some areas where many people have moved away have seen forests grow back.

Stronger roles for women: When men leave to find work, women often take on bigger roles in farming and leading the community.

Example: In Sub-Saharan Africa, many women now manage farms and make important family decisions.

❌ Negative Effects:
Not enough workers: When many young people leave, farms don’t have enough workers, so less food is grown.

Example: In Nepal, farmland is often left empty because so many young people have moved away.

More elderly people left behind: As young people move, the population that stays behind gets older and needs more care.

Families split up: When children or parents move away, it can make those left behind feel lonely and break traditional family support systems.

Local businesses close: With fewer people living in rural areas, shops and schools may shut down, making the economy weaker.

Question 10

5(b) With the aid of examples, explain the role of push factors in rural-urban migration.

Answer 10

💰 Economic Push Factors:
Few jobs and low pay: In rural areas, most people farm just enough to survive or work in short-term jobs that don’t pay well.

Example: In Bangladesh, many poor people move to big cities like Dhaka to find better work.

No banking or business support: People often can’t borrow money or start businesses in rural areas, so they move to cities for better chances.

🏥 Social Push Factors:
Poor schools and hospitals: Countryside areas may not have good education or healthcare, so families move to cities for better services.

Example: In India, people move to cities like Mumbai or Delhi so their children can go to better schools.

Few chances for women: In some rural areas, women are expected to stay at home and don’t get to study or work. They may move to cities for more freedom.

🌦 Environmental Push Factors:
Natural disasters and climate change: Problems like droughts, floods, and poor soil make farming difficult and push people to leave.

Example: In Somalia, repeated droughts have forced many people to move to towns and cities.

Not enough clean water: When rural areas don’t have safe drinking water, people often move to places where it’s easier to live.

🏛 Political Push Factors:
Poor services and roads: In some places, the government does not invest in rural areas. Without electricity, roads, or support, people move to cities.

Example: In Nigeria, many rural areas have few services, so people move to cities like Lagos.

Violence and war: Fighting, conflict, or danger can force people to leave their homes for safety.

Example: In Syria, many people from the countryside have moved to cities or even other countries to escape war.

Question 11

4(a)(i) Define the concept of carrying capacity.

Answer 11

The carrying capacity of an environment is the maximum population size that its resources (food, water, land) and infrastructure can sustain indefinitely without degrading the environment.

For full marks:
1 mark for stating that it refers to the maximum sustainable population.
1 mark for mentioning that it depends on available resources.
1 mark for including the concept of sustainability (i.e., long-term balance between population and resources).

Example definition:
Carrying capacity is the largest number of people an environment can support indefinitely without causing environmental degradation, resource depletion, or decline in quality of life.

Question 12

4(a)(ii) Briefly explain two causes of food shortages.

Answer 12

Climate change and natural disasters – Extreme weather events like droughts, floods, and hurricanes reduce crop yields and damage food supplies.

Example: Droughts in Ethiopia have led to repeated food shortages.

Population growth exceeding food production – Rapid population increases lead to higher food demand, which outstrips agricultural production capacity.

Example: In India, population growth has increased pressure on food resources, leading to periodic food crises.

Poor infrastructure and distribution systems – Even when food is available, lack of storage, transport, and market access leads to wastage.

Example: In Sub-Saharan Africa, food shortages persist due to inadequate storage and road networks.

Conflicts and war – Wars and political instability disrupt agriculture, food distribution, and trade, leading to famine.

Example: Yemen has suffered from food shortages due to ongoing conflict.

Question 13

4(b) With the aid of examples, explain the factors that lead to increasing food production in an area.

Answer 13

Mechanization and use of technology – Advanced farm machinery, irrigation, and GPS-based precision farming increase efficiency.

Example: In the USA, mechanized farming has led to higher wheat and corn yields.

Genetically Modified (GM) Crops – GM crops are disease-resistant, drought-resistant, and have higher yields.

Example: Bt cotton in India has increased production by reducing pest damage.

Use of fertilizers and pesticides – Chemical fertilizers boost soil nutrients, while pesticides protect crops from insects and diseases.

Example: In Brazil, fertilizer use has contributed to record soybean production.

Irrigation and improved water management – Efficient irrigation techniques like drip irrigation and hydroponics allow farming in dry areas.

Example: Israel’s use of drip irrigation has improved farming efficiency in arid regions.

Expansion of farmland through deforestation and land reclamation – Clearing forests and reclaiming wetlands or coastal areas increases arable land.

Example: In China, land reclamation projects have converted unused land into farmland.

Question 14

5(b) Explain the impact of rural-urban migration on population structures of LICs/MICs for both source and receiving/destination areas.

Answer 14

Impacts on Source Areas (Rural Areas)
Aging population – Many young people migrate, leaving behind an older population.
Example: In rural Nepal, villages are dominated by elderly residents.

Gender imbalance – Mostly young men migrate, leaving more women in rural areas.
Example: In India, rural areas see a higher proportion of women as men move to cities for work.

Declining birth rates – With fewer young adults, birth rates decrease, leading to population decline over time.

Impacts on Destination Areas (Urban Areas)
Youthful population structure – Cities gain young, working-age individuals, reducing dependency ratios.
Example: Lagos, Nigeria, has a high percentage of young migrants.

Population growth and overcrowding – Rapid migration leads to high population density, slums, and poor living conditions.
Example: Dharavi slum in Mumbai, India, has grown due to rural-urban migration.

Increased demand for jobs and services – More schools, hospitals, and housing are needed to accommodate new residents.

Question 15

4(a) For your case study of Singapore’s population policy: Outline the difficulties that led to the policy.

Answer 15

1. Post-Independence Overpopulation (1950s–1970s) – Led to the “Stop at Two” Policy
   High birth rates – In the 1950s and 1960s, Singapore had a high fertility rate (TFR over 5.0), leading to concerns about overpopulation.
   Limited resources – Singapore had little land, water, and natural resources to support a rapidly growing population.
   Housing and job shortages – Rapid population growth led to slum conditions, unemployment, and inadequate infrastructure.
2. Aging Population and Declining Birth Rates (1980s–Present) – Led to the Pro-Natalist Policy
   Fertility rate fell below replacement level – By the 1980s, fertility rates had dropped below 2.1 children per woman due to urbanization and economic changes.
   Aging population – With longer life expectancy and fewer births, the proportion of elderly people increased, creating concerns over economic productivity and healthcare costs.
   Delayed marriages and fewer children – More women focused on careers and education, leading to later marriages and smaller families.
   Economic impact – A shrinking workforce threatened economic growth and innovation.

Question 16

4(b) Explain the attempted solutions to these difficulties.

Answer 16

1. Anti-Natalist Policy: “Stop at Two” Campaign (1960s–1970s)
   Government promoted smaller families through family planning programs.
   Disincentives for large families:
   Higher hospital fees for third and subsequent children.
   Limited school priority for larger families.
   Sterilization incentives were provided to women who agreed to not have more children.
2. Pro-Natalist Policy: “Have Three or More If You Can Afford It” (1987–Present)
   Incentives to encourage more births:

Cash bonuses (Baby Bonus Scheme) and tax benefits for parents.
Paid maternity and paternity leave to support working parents.
Subsidized childcare to reduce financial burdens.
Encouraging marriage and family formation:

The Social Development Network (SDN) was created to promote dating and marriage among young Singaporeans.
Public housing benefits were given to married couples to encourage early family formation.
Immigration policies to supplement population growth:

Singapore welcomed highly skilled foreign workers and permanent residents to address labor shortages.

Question 17

5(b) With the aid of examples, explain the causes of economic migration.

Answer 17

1. Push Factors: Economic Hardships in Home Country
   Unemployment and low wages – People leave countries with high unemployment and poor wages for better job prospects.

Example: Many Mexicans migrate to the USA for better wages and employment opportunities.

Poor working conditions – Workers in some countries face low job security, lack of benefits, and poor labor rights, pushing them to migrate.

Example: Many Filipino domestic workers migrate to Hong Kong and the Middle East for better salaries and working conditions.

Economic instability and poverty – People move to countries with stronger economies to improve their financial status.

Example: Migrants from Venezuela have moved to Colombia and Brazil due to hyperinflation and economic collapse.

2. Pull Factors: Better Economic Opportunities Abroad
   Higher wages and job availability – Developed nations offer better salaries and stable jobs.

Example: Many Indian and Pakistani engineers migrate to the Gulf States for well-paid construction and oil industry jobs.

Better quality of life and social benefits – Economic migrants are attracted to countries with healthcare, education, and welfare benefits.

Example: Many African migrants move to France and Germany for access to welfare and employment support.

Business and investment opportunities – Some migrants move to start businesses in countries with better economies.

Example: Chinese entrepreneurs migrate to African countries to establish trade and business ventures.

Question 18

5(a) Contrast Between Voluntary and Forced International Migration

Answer 18

1. Voluntary Migration
   Movement based on choice for better opportunities (economic, social).
   Push Factors:
   Unemployment, low wages, better career prospects, lifestyle improvements.
   Pull Factors:
   Higher salaries, better healthcare, family reunification.
   Decision-making:
   Planned and based on personal choice.
   Legal Framework:
   Requires work permits and residency applications.
   Examples:
   Indian professionals moving to the USA for tech jobs.
   Retirees relocating to Spain for a better climate.
2. Forced Migration
   Movement due to conflict, persecution, or disasters.
   Push Factors:
   War, political persecution, natural disasters, ethnic cleansing.
   Pull Factors:
   Safety, asylum policies, international aid.
   Decision-making:
   Sudden and often involuntary.
   Legal Framework:
   Protected under asylum and refugee laws (UNHCR).
   Examples:
   Syrian refugees fleeing to Europe due to war.
   Rohingya people escaping ethnic persecution in Myanmar.

Question 19

4(a)(i) Define the concept of underpopulation.

Answer 19

Underpopulation occurs when a country or region has fewer people than needed to make full use of its resources for economic growth and development.
It means that there are too few workers to support industries, infrastructure, and public services efficiently.
This can lead to low productivity, high dependency ratios, and economic stagnation.

Question 20

4(a)(ii) Suggest two problems that underpopulation causes for an area when developing its resources.

Answer 20

Labor Shortages
A lack of workers can slow economic growth, reduce productivity, and make industries dependent on foreign labor.
Example: Australia faces labor shortages in agriculture and mining due to its low population density.

High Costs of Providing Public Services
With fewer taxpayers, governments struggle to fund healthcare, education, and infrastructure, making services more expensive per person.
Example: Canada’s rural areas face difficulties in maintaining schools and hospitals due to low population densities.

Question 21

4(b) With the aid of examples, explain the consequences for an area caused by food shortages.

Answer 21

1. Malnutrition and Disease
   Lack of food leads to malnutrition, weakened immune systems, and increased disease vulnerability.
   Example: Somalia suffers from severe malnutrition due to recurring droughts and food insecurity.
2. Economic Decline and Low Productivity
   Food shortages increase prices, reduce worker efficiency, and slow economic growth.
   Example: Zimbabwe faced economic collapse when food shortages led to inflation and job losses.
3. Social and Political Unrest
   Hunger and frustration can cause riots, protests, and conflicts.
   Example: The 2011 Arab Spring was partly triggered by rising food prices and shortages.
4. Forced Migration
   People move away from areas with frequent food shortages, increasing urban migration and pressure on city resources.
   Example: Ethiopians migrate to urban centers due to drought-related food insecurity.

Question 22

5(a)(i) Define the process of urban‒urban migration.

Answer 22

Urban‒urban migration refers to the movement of people from one city or town to another within the same country or region for reasons such as employment, education, or lifestyle changes.

It differs from rural-urban migration, as people remain in urban areas rather than moving from rural to urban regions.

Question 23

5(a)(ii) Suggest two reasons for urban‒urban migration.

Answer 23

Employment and Career Opportunities
People move to cities with better job prospects, higher salaries, or career advancements.
Example: Many young professionals in China move from smaller cities to Shanghai or Beijing for better jobs.

Better Quality of Life and Services
People migrate to cities with better healthcare, education, housing, and lifestyle options.
Example: In India, many move from Chennai to Bangalore for better infrastructure and IT job opportunities.

Question 24

5(b) With the aid of examples, explain the role of push factors in urban‒rural migration.

Answer 24

1. High Cost of Living and Housing Shortages
   Expensive rent and living costs make cities unaffordable, pushing people to rural areas where housing is cheaper.
   Example: In the UK, people move from London to smaller towns due to rising property prices.
2. Traffic Congestion and Pollution
   Long commutes, high noise levels, and air pollution make city life undesirable.
   Example: Many residents of Mexico City relocate to smaller towns to escape extreme congestion and pollution.
3. High Crime Rates and Social Issues
   Increasing crime and insecurity drive families to seek safer rural environments.
   Example: In South Africa, many professionals leave Johannesburg for safer suburban or rural areas.
4. Job Loss and Unemployment in Urban Areas
   Economic downturns, company closures, and automation can cause job losses, forcing people to seek opportunities in rural areas.
   Example: Detroit, USA, saw population decline as factories closed, leading people to move to smaller towns.

Question 25

4(a)(i) Give the meaning of the term overpopulation.

Answer 25

Overpopulation occurs when the population size exceeds the carrying capacity of an area, meaning there are too many people relative to available resources such as food, water, jobs, and infrastructure. This results in lower living standards, environmental degradation, and increased pressure on public services. Example: Bangladesh experiences overpopulation, leading to high unemployment, congestion, and inadequate housing.

Question 26

4(a)(ii) Explain how overpopulation may be caused by changes in natural increase.

Answer 26

High Birth Rates and Population Growth A high birth rate increases population size faster than economic growth can sustain it. Example: Niger has one of the world’s highest birth rates, leading to overcrowding and resource shortages. Declining Death Rates Due to Medical Advances Better healthcare, vaccinations, and sanitation reduce death rates, leading to higher survival rates. Example: In India, improved healthcare has led to lower infant mortality, increasing population size. Imbalanced Dependency Ratio High fertility rates result in a large youth population, creating pressure on education, jobs, and services. Example: In Nigeria, a young population puts strain on schools and job markets, leading to urban congestion. Limited Use of Contraceptives and Family Planning In some cultures, lack of birth control access or religious beliefs result in high fertility rates. Example: In Afghanistan, cultural norms favor large families, leading to rapid population growth.

Question 27

4(b) With the aid of examples, explain why some areas in HICs may be overpopulated.

Answer 27

High Population Density in Major Cities Urban centers attract migrants, businesses, and industries, leading to housing shortages, traffic congestion, and pollution. Example: London, UK, struggles with overcrowding, high living costs, and transport congestion. Aging Population and Healthcare Strain In some HICs, an aging population increases demand for healthcare and pensions, creating resource shortages. Example: Japan faces labor shortages and rising elderly care costs due to demographic imbalances. Environmental Limitations and Resource Shortages Some areas lack water, arable land, or energy sources, making even small populations unsustainable. Example: Las Vegas, USA, is overpopulated in relation to its water supply, leading to severe water shortages. Economic Migration and Housing Crises Large numbers of migrants seeking jobs in economic hubs create housing shortages and strain on services. Example: New York City faces housing crises and expensive real estate due to high demand.

Question 28

5(a) With the aid of examples, describe how the age of migrants may impact on the population structure of a receiving/destination area.

Answer 28

Increase in the Working-Age Population (15–40 Years Old) Young adult migrants boost the workforce, reducing dependency ratios and increasing productivity. Example: The UK relies on young Eastern European migrants to support industries like healthcare and construction. Higher Birth Rates and Population Growth Migrants often have higher fertility rates, leading to population increase in destination areas. Example: In Germany, Syrian refugees have contributed to higher birth rates, reversing population decline. Aging Population Can Also Increase Some migration involves retirees moving to warmer climates, increasing the elderly population in those areas. Example: Spain’s coastal regions attract British retirees, increasing the need for healthcare services. Gender Imbalances Migration patterns may favor male workers, creating gender imbalances in certain areas. Example: In the UAE, male laborers from South Asia dominate the construction sector, leading to a skewed sex ratio.

Question 29

5(b) For your case study of one international migration stream, explain the causes of the migration.

Answer 29

Case Study: Mexican Migration to the USA 1. Push Factors (Reasons for Leaving Mexico) High Unemployment and Low Wages Limited job opportunities push Mexicans to seek employment in the USA. Example: Average wages in Mexico are significantly lower than in the USA. Crime and Violence Drug cartels and gang-related violence force people to migrate for safety. Example: Increased crime rates in cities like Tijuana and Ciudad Juárez have driven many to flee. Environmental Factors and Natural Disasters Droughts and food insecurity in rural Mexico lead to migration toward urban and international destinations. Example: Farmers affected by climate change in northern Mexico seek stability in the USA. 2. Pull Factors (Reasons for Moving to the USA) Higher Wages and Employment Opportunities The USA offers higher wages and more job availability, especially in agriculture and construction. Example: Many Mexicans work in California’s agricultural sector, benefiting from higher incomes. Better Healthcare and Education The USA provides better medical services and education for migrant families. Example: Migrant children in Texas and Arizona receive free public schooling. Family Reunification and Social Networks Many Mexicans have relatives in the USA, making migration easier through family sponsorship. Example: Mexican-American communities in Los Angeles and Chicago help new migrants settle.

Question 30

4(a)(ii) Explain why the dependency ratio may vary within a country.

Answer 30

Differences Between Urban and Rural Areas Rural areas may have higher youth dependency as families have more children. Urban areas may have lower youth dependency but higher elderly dependency due to retirees staying in cities. Economic Differences and Job Opportunities Regions with more job opportunities attract working-age adults, lowering the dependency ratio. Areas with fewer jobs may have more elderly and children, increasing the dependency ratio. Example: London (UK) has a lower dependency ratio due to high employment opportunities, while rural areas have higher dependency. Migration Patterns Young workers migrate to cities for jobs, leaving rural areas with more dependents. Retirees move to areas with better healthcare and lower living costs, increasing elderly dependency in some places. Example: Florida, USA, has a high elderly dependency ratio due to retirees moving there. Government Policies and Social Services Areas with better healthcare and pension systems may retain more elderly people. Example: Germany’s social welfare system leads to a higher elderly population in certain regions.

Question 31

4(b) With the aid of examples, explain why the dependency ratio is changing in many LICs.

Answer 31

Declining Birth Rates Due to Family Planning Many LICs are experiencing lower fertility rates due to greater use of contraception and family planning programs. Example: Ethiopia’s government has promoted contraceptive use, leading to a decline in birth rates and a lower youth dependency ratio. Aging Population Due to Improved Healthcare Better healthcare and lower infant mortality mean more people live longer, increasing elderly dependency ratios. Example: In Bangladesh, increased life expectancy is raising the elderly population, shifting dependency patterns. Rural-Urban Migration and Workforce Shifts Young adults migrate to cities, reducing dependency ratios in urban areas but increasing them in rural regions. Example: In Nigeria, rural areas have high youth dependency, while cities like Lagos have more working-age people. Economic Growth and Education Expansion As economies grow, more people pursue higher education, delaying childbirth and reducing birth rates. Example: India’s growing middle class has seen reduced birth rates and shifting dependency ratios.

Question 32

5(a)(i) Describe the process of stepped migration.

Answer 32

Stepped migration refers to the movement of people in stages, often starting from rural areas to small towns, then to larger cities, and finally to major urban centers. It occurs because migrants gain experience, resources, and knowledge at each step before moving further. Example: A farmer moves from a village in India → small town → regional city (Bangalore) → major city (Mumbai) for better job opportunities.

Question 33

5(a)(ii) Explain why stepped migration is less likely to occur in international migration.

Answer 33

Strict Immigration Laws and Visa Requirements Many countries impose visa restrictions, making it harder for migrants to move gradually from country to country. Example: USA and EU countries have strict immigration laws preventing gradual migration. Higher Costs and Travel Barriers International migration involves higher costs for travel, visas, and legal fees, making one-time relocation more common. Example: Syrian refugees often migrate directly to Germany or Sweden instead of moving in steps. Lack of Intervening Opportunities in Some Countries Unlike within a country, migrants may not find work or support in transit nations, leading them to move directly to final destinations. Example: Many Mexican migrants move directly to the USA, rather than stopping in Central American countries.

Question 34

5(b) Explain why people migrate within urban settlements (intra-urban movements).

Answer 34

Housing Upgrades and Better Living Conditions People move to better housing areas as their income increases. Example: In New York City, residents move from low-income apartments in the Bronx to suburban homes in New Jersey. Job Changes and Workplace Proximity Workers relocate closer to job centers to reduce commute time. Example: In Mumbai, professionals move from distant suburbs to areas near business districts. Educational and Family Needs Families move closer to better schools for their children. Example: London families move near top-ranking schools in areas like Kensington. Gentrification and Urban Renewal As neighborhoods improve, people move in for better amenities. Example: Brooklyn, New York, has attracted wealthier residents due to gentrification.

Question 35

4(a)(i) Define the term mortality rate.

Answer 35

Mortality rate, also known as the death rate, refers to the number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population per year. It is a key demographic indicator used to measure the overall health and life expectancy of a population. Example: If a country has 10 deaths per 1,000 people annually, its mortality rate is 10 per 1,000.

Question 36

4(b) With the aid of examples, explain why infant mortality rates (IMR) are decreasing in many MICs.

Answer 36

Better Healthcare Services and Medical Technology Increased access to hospitals, trained midwives, and neonatal care reduces infant deaths. Example: In Brazil, expanded maternal healthcare and neonatal units have led to a sharp decline in IMR. Widespread Vaccination Programs Mass immunization campaigns prevent common childhood diseases such as measles and polio. Example: In Bangladesh, measles vaccinations have significantly lowered infant deaths. Improved Nutrition and Food Security Better diets for mothers and infants reduce malnutrition-related deaths. Example: Mexico’s food assistance programs have helped lower IMR by combating malnutrition. Increased Female Education and Family Planning Educated mothers are more likely to seek healthcare, practice good hygiene, and use contraception. Example: Thailand’s IMR declined as women gained better access to education and family planning. Government Policies and Public Health Campaigns Many MICs have implemented policies to improve maternal and infant health. Example: China’s maternal healthcare programs have reduced neonatal mortality in rural areas.

Question 37

4(a)(ii) Contrast the infant mortality rates (IMR) in HICs and LICs/MICs.

Answer 37

Higher IMR in LICs/MICs Compared to HICs Infant mortality rates are significantly higher in low-income countries (LICs) than in high-income countries (HICs). Example: Chad (LIC) has an IMR of 66 per 1,000 births, whereas Norway (HIC) has an IMR of 2 per 1,000 births. Steeper Decline in IMR in LICs/MICs Many LICs and MICs have rapidly declining IMRs due to improved healthcare, vaccinations, and sanitation. Example: India’s IMR dropped from 80 per 1,000 in 1990 to 27 per 1,000 in 2020 due to better healthcare. IMR in HICs is More Stable and Low HICs have low and stable infant mortality rates due to advanced medical care and maternal health services. Example: The IMR in Sweden has remained below 3 per 1,000 births for decades. Greater Variability in IMR Within LICs/MICs IMR varies more in LICs/MICs due to regional disparities in healthcare, poverty, and infrastructure. Example: In Nigeria, urban areas have much lower IMR than rural regions with limited healthcare access.

Question 38

5(a) With the aid of examples, explain the advantages and disadvantages of stepped migration for the migrant.

Answer 38

Advantages of Stepped Migration: Gradual Adjustment to Urban Life Migrants can adapt to each new environment slowly, reducing culture shock and financial strain. Example: A farmer in India may first move to a small town before settling in Mumbai. Increased Economic Stability Migrants can save money and gain work experience in smaller urban areas before moving to major cities. Example: Nigerian migrants often move to regional towns first to secure jobs before heading to Lagos. Social Support Networks Migrants establish social connections along their migration path, reducing isolation and financial risks. Example: In Brazil, rural migrants first move to secondary cities before reaching São Paulo. Disadvantages of Stepped Migration: Takes Longer to Reach the Final Destination Moving in stages delays the migrant’s ability to access higher-paying jobs in major cities. Example: A migrant in Indonesia may spend years in smaller towns before reaching Jakarta. Higher Overall Cost of Migration Multiple moves require more transportation, housing, and job transitions, increasing financial costs. Example: Ethiopian migrants to Addis Ababa spend more money on transport and rent by moving in stages. Uncertainty and Social Disruption Migrants may struggle with job insecurity, discrimination, and frequent relocations. Example: In Mexico, migrants moving to different urban centers before reaching Mexico City face unstable employment.

Question 39

5(b) With the aid of examples, explain why people migrate between urban settlements (urban-urban movements).

Answer 39

Employment Opportunities and Career Growth Many people move from smaller cities to larger ones for higher salaries, job promotions, or industry shifts. Example: In China, workers migrate from Chengdu to Beijing for better tech industry jobs. Better Education and Healthcare Services Larger cities offer better universities and hospitals, attracting families and professionals. Example: Medical professionals in South Africa move from small towns to Cape Town for advanced hospitals. Lower Cost of Living and Housing Availability Some move from expensive mega-cities to mid-sized cities to reduce living expenses. Example: Many New Yorkers move to Philadelphia for cheaper housing and lower taxes. Environmental and Lifestyle Preferences Some migrate for less pollution, better climate, or improved quality of life. Example: Many residents of Bangkok, Thailand, move to Chiang Mai for cleaner air and relaxed living. Relocation Due to Urban Redevelopment Some people are forced to move due to gentrification or infrastructure projects. Example: Rio de Janeiro’s favela residents were relocated due to Olympic Games urban renewal projects.

Question 40

4(a)(i) Describe how to calculate the dependency ratio.

Answer 40

Dependency Ratio = (Young dependents (0-14) + Elderly dependents (65+)) ÷ Working-age population (15-64) × 100

Question 41

4(a) Describe the problems of an ageing population.

Answer 41

Increased Healthcare Costs Older people require more medical care, including hospitals, medications, and nursing homes. Example: Japan faces rising healthcare costs due to its growing elderly population. Strain on Pension Systems A larger elderly population means more people claiming pensions while fewer workers contribute. Example: In Germany, the government raised the retirement age to sustain the pension system. Labor Shortages and Economic Slowdown Fewer young workers result in reduced economic productivity and labor shortages in key industries. Example: South Korea is experiencing a declining workforce, affecting manufacturing and services. Need for Elderly Care Services Increased demand for nursing homes, home care, and assisted living facilities. Example: The UK’s elderly population growth has increased demand for care workers and support services. Changes in Family Structure More elderly dependents increase the financial and emotional burden on families. Example: The "4-2-1" problem means one child supports two parents and four grandparents. Housing and Infrastructure Challenges Cities must adapt housing, transport, and public spaces for elderly needs. Example: Singapore has developed age-friendly housing and transport services

Question 42

4(b) Explain how the dependency ratio would be expected to change over time according to the demographic transition model (DTM).

Answer 42

Stage 1: High Dependency Ratio (High Birth and Death Rates) Both young and elderly dependents are high, leading to a high dependency ratio. Example: Pre-industrial societies had low life expectancy and high birth rates, making children a large dependent group. Stage 2: Lower Dependency Ratio (Death Rates Drop, Birth Rates Stay High) Fewer deaths mean a larger working-age population, lowering the dependency ratio. Example: India in the early 20th century experienced falling death rates but still had many children. Stage 3: Dependency Ratio Drops Further (Birth Rates Decline) As birth rates drop, fewer young dependents exist, and the working-age population grows. Example: Brazil in the 21st century saw lower fertility rates and a growing workforce. Stage 4: Dependency Ratio Starts Rising Again (Ageing Population) Lower birth rates and longer life expectancy lead to a higher elderly population, raising dependency again. Example: Germany and Japan now have high elderly dependency ratios. Stage 5: Very High Dependency Ratio (More Elderly Dependents) More retirees than workers, causing economic strain. Example: Italy’s ageing population is leading to a shrinking workforce.

Question 43

5(a) Describe the impacts on population characteristics of urban areas caused by urban–rural migration.

Answer 43

Ageing Urban Population Younger people leave cities, making the remaining population older. Example: In Japan, many cities have an ageing population as younger people move to rural areas. Decline in Working-Age Population Fewer young professionals and laborers, reducing economic productivity. Example: Paris has seen a decline in younger workers moving to suburban and rural areas. Increased Vacancy and Housing Decline Empty apartments and buildings lead to urban decay. Example: Detroit, USA, has many abandoned properties due to population decline. Change in Socioeconomic Structure Higher-income residents stay, while lower-income groups struggle with high costs. Example: London has seen wealthier individuals dominate city housing as middle-income families move out.

Question 44

5(b) Explain why people migrate from urban areas to rural areas in HICs.

Answer 44

Lower Cost of Living and Housing Urban housing is expensive, pushing people to rural areas for affordable homes. Example: Many New Yorkers move to rural Pennsylvania for cheaper housing and lower taxes. Better Quality of Life and Less Pollution Rural areas offer cleaner air, less traffic, and green spaces. Example: In the UK, people move from London to countryside villages for peace and quiet. Remote Work and Technological Advancements Better internet access allows people to work from home in rural areas. Example: During COVID-19, many Americans left cities for rural homes with remote work flexibility. Retirement and Ageing Population Many retirees move to the countryside for a slower-paced lifestyle. Example: Florida, USA, attracts retirees due to its warm climate and lower living costs.

Question 45

4(a)(i) Define the term infant mortality rate (IMR).

Answer 45

Infant mortality rate (IMR) is the number of deaths of children under the age of one year per 1,000 live births per year. It is an important indicator of a country's healthcare quality, sanitation, and living conditions. Example: If a country has 25 infant deaths per 1,000 live births, the IMR is 25 per 1,000.

Question 46

4(a)(ii) Suggest two environmental factors that cause high infant mortality rates (IMR) in LICs/MICs.

Answer 46

Poor Water Quality and Sanitation Contaminated water sources lead to waterborne diseases such as cholera and diarrhea, which are major causes of infant deaths. Example: In Bangladesh, lack of clean drinking water has contributed to high IMR due to infections. Climate-Related Food Shortages (Droughts and Floods) Droughts reduce food availability, leading to malnutrition, while floods increase disease outbreaks. Example: In Somalia, recurring droughts and food shortages have resulted in high infant mortality rates.

Question 47

4(b) With the aid of examples, explain why infant mortality rates (IMR) are low in HICs.

Answer 47

Advanced Healthcare Systems HICs have high-quality hospitals, trained medical staff, and modern neonatal care. Example: Norway provides free healthcare and advanced neonatal services, ensuring low infant mortality rates. Higher Maternal Education Levels Educated mothers are more likely to follow proper prenatal care, child nutrition, and hygiene practices. Example: In Japan, maternal education has led to better infant care and reduced mortality. Effective Vaccination and Disease Control HICs have widespread vaccination programs that prevent measles, polio, and pneumonia. Example: The UK’s National Health Service (NHS) ensures all infants receive vaccinations, lowering IMR. Better Nutrition and Childcare Support Good nutrition during pregnancy and proper infant feeding programs reduce IMR. Example: Germany’s government-funded child welfare programs support healthy child development. Clean Water and Sanitation Infrastructure Safe drinking water and sanitation systems prevent infant deaths from diarrheal diseases. Example: Sweden has universal access to clean water, lowering infant mortality rates.

Question 48

5(a) Describe how the characteristics of migrants leaving a source area may have an impact on the population structure of the source area.

Answer 48

Loss of Young and Working-Age Population Many migrants are young adults (15-40 years old), leaving behind an aging population. Example: In Mexico, migration to the USA has left rural areas with a higher elderly population. Gender Imbalance Men migrate more than women for work, leading to more females in the source area. Example: In Nepal, many young men migrate to Gulf countries, leaving women to manage farms and households. Higher Dependency Ratio Fewer working-age people means a higher proportion of children and elderly dependents. Example: Syria’s refugee crisis left many towns with more dependents than working adults. Brain Drain and Skill Shortages Skilled professionals (doctors, engineers, teachers) migrate, leaving critical job shortages. Example: India has lost many IT professionals to Europe and North America, impacting economic growth. Decline in Birth Rates Fewer young couples mean lower fertility rates, leading to population decline over time. Example: In Eastern Europe, migration to Western countries has contributed to population shrinkage.

Question 49

5(b) With the aid of examples, explain why people migrate from rural areas to urban areas in LICs/MICs.

Answer 49

Better Employment Opportunities Cities offer higher wages and more jobs in factories, offices, and service industries. Example: Many rural Indians migrate to Mumbai for jobs in manufacturing and finance. Better Healthcare and Education Cities have modern hospitals and schools, attracting families who want better services. Example: In Nigeria, rural families move to Lagos for better schools and medical care. Poverty and Lack of Services in Rural Areas Rural areas often lack electricity, clean water, and roads, forcing migration to cities. Example: In Ethiopia, poor infrastructure pushes people to Addis Ababa. Agricultural Challenges (Droughts, Land Shortages) Limited farmland and climate issues reduce rural incomes, forcing migration. Example: In Bangladesh, river flooding forces many to move to Dhaka. Social and Cultural Attractions Cities offer modern lifestyles, entertainment, and social opportunities, attracting youth. Example: Many young Brazilians leave villages for Rio de Janeiro for a modern lifestyle.

Question 50

4(a) Describe the changes in the death rate in the demographic transition model (DTM).

Answer 50

Stage 1 (High Stationary Stage) Death rates are high and fluctuate due to disease, famine, poor sanitation, and lack of medical care. Example: Pre-industrial societies (e.g., historical Europe before the 18th century). Stage 2 (Early Expanding Stage) Death rates drop sharply due to improved healthcare, sanitation, and food supply. Example: 19th-century India and parts of Africa after medical and agricultural advancements. Stage 3 (Late Expanding Stage) Death rates continue to fall but at a slower rate due to medical advancements and improved living conditions. Example: China in the mid-20th century experienced declining mortality due to health reforms. Stage 4 (Low Stationary Stage) Death rates are low and stable due to advanced healthcare and better disease control. Example: Most HICs today, like Japan, Canada, and Germany. Stage 5 (Declining Stage, Possible Population Decline) Death rates may rise slightly due to an ageing population and lifestyle diseases. Example: Italy and Japan experience higher death rates due to ageing populations.

Question 51

4(b) With the aid of examples, explain why death rates fall with the increased economic development of an area.

Answer 51

Improved Healthcare and Medical Facilities More hospitals, doctors, and access to medicine reduce mortality rates. Example: In Singapore, government investment in public healthcare has led to low death rates. Better Nutrition and Food Security Economic growth improves agricultural production and food availability, reducing malnutrition-related deaths. Example: China’s Green Revolution improved food supply, lowering death rates. Improved Sanitation and Clean Water Supply Access to clean water and proper sanitation reduces deaths from waterborne diseases. Example: In South Korea, widespread urban sanitation programs led to a decline in death rates. Education and Awareness Educated populations adopt healthier lifestyles, hygiene practices, and family planning. Example: Finland’s health campaigns reduced smoking and heart disease deaths. Industrialization and Job Security A strong economy provides stable jobs and better incomes, improving quality of life. Example: Germany’s post-war industrial growth improved living conditions and reduced mortality.

Question 52

5(a) Describe different ways of classifying types of population movements.

Answer 52

By Cause Forced migration (e.g., war, natural disasters). Voluntary migration (e.g., for jobs, education). Example: Syrian refugees are forced migrants, while Indian IT workers moving to the USA are voluntary migrants. By Distance Internal migration (within a country, e.g., rural-urban migration). International migration (between countries). Example: Mexicans moving to the USA is international migration, while Brazilians moving to São Paulo is internal migration. By Duration Temporary migration (seasonal jobs, students). Permanent migration (permanent settlement). Example: Nepali workers in Qatar are temporary migrants, while Germans moving to Canada permanently are permanent migrants. By Direction Rural-urban migration (moving to cities). Urban-rural migration (counterurbanization). Example: Many people from China’s countryside migrate to cities like Beijing, while some retirees move from London to rural areas. By Type of Movement Stepped migration (moving in stages, e.g., village → town → city). Chain migration (families move after relatives have settled). Example: Many Indian migrants settle in the UK through chain migration, following relatives.

Question 53

5(b) With the aid of examples, explain why the level of internal migration has increased in many LICs/MICs.

Answer 53

Urban Job Opportunities and Higher Wages Cities offer more jobs in factories, retail, and services compared to rural areas. Example: Mumbai, India, attracts millions of rural migrants for work in finance and industry. Improved Transportation and Infrastructure Better roads, buses, and trains make migration easier. Example: China’s high-speed rail has made internal migration more accessible. Education and Healthcare Access Cities have better schools, universities, and hospitals, attracting families. Example: Lagos, Nigeria, has better education and healthcare than rural areas. Declining Agriculture and Climate Change Droughts, floods, and soil depletion push rural populations to cities. Example: Bangladeshi farmers move to Dhaka due to flooding and farmland loss. Government Policies and Investment Governments develop urban areas and promote migration for economic growth. Example: Brazil’s policies encouraged migration to Brasília to develop the capital.

Question 54

4(a) Describe the changes in the birth rate in the demographic transition model (DTM).

Answer 54

Stage 1 (High Stationary Stage) Birth rates are high and fluctuate due to lack of contraception, high infant mortality, and reliance on subsistence farming. Example: Pre-industrial societies, such as many hunter-gatherer societies. Stage 2 (Early Expanding Stage) Birth rates remain high, but death rates start to decline, leading to rapid population growth. Reasons: Improved healthcare, sanitation, and food supply reduce infant mortality, so people continue having large families. Example: 19th-century India and Africa in the 20th century. Stage 3 (Late Expanding Stage) Birth rates begin to fall significantly as urbanization, education, and access to contraception increase. Reasons: Women delay childbirth due to career opportunities, and children are no longer needed for labor. Example: Brazil and Mexico in the late 20th century. Stage 4 (Low Stationary Stage) Birth rates are low and stable, leading to slow or zero population growth. Reasons: Widespread use of contraception, gender equality, and changing social norms. Example: USA, Canada, and the UK today. Stage 5 (Declining Stage) Birth rates may fall below replacement level, leading to population decline. Reasons: Ageing population, economic insecurity, and low fertility preferences. Example: Japan and Germany today.

Question 55

4(b) With the aid of examples, explain why infant mortality rates fall with the increased economic development of an area.

Answer 55

Improved Healthcare Facilities More hospitals, trained doctors, and access to medicine reduce infant mortality. Example: Singapore’s public healthcare system provides free maternal care, reducing IMR. Better Nutrition and Food Security Economic growth improves food production, nutrition, and child health. Example: India’s Green Revolution increased food supply, lowering malnutrition-related infant deaths. Clean Water and Sanitation Improvements Economic development enables investment in safe drinking water and sewage systems, reducing waterborne diseases. Example: South Korea’s urban sanitation programs reduced child mortality. Increased Maternal Education Educated women are more likely to use healthcare services, proper hygiene, and family planning. Example: Bangladesh’s female literacy programs helped reduce infant mortality. Government Policies and Health Programs Governments invest in vaccination and maternal healthcare, reducing infant deaths. Example: The UK’s National Health Service (NHS) provides free immunizations, reducing IMR.

Question 56

5(a) Describe different ways of classifying types of migrants.

Answer 56

By Cause of Migration Voluntary Migration – Movement for jobs, education, or lifestyle. Forced Migration – Due to war, natural disasters, or persecution. Example: Syrian refugees (forced migration) vs. Indian IT workers in the USA (voluntary migration). By Distance Internal Migration – Moving within a country (rural-urban migration). International Migration – Moving between countries. Example: Mexicans moving to the USA (international) vs. Nigerians moving to Lagos (internal). By Duration Temporary Migration – Seasonal jobs or student migration. Permanent Migration – Moving permanently to settle. Example: Nepali workers in Qatar (temporary) vs. Germans moving to Canada (permanent). By Direction Rural-to-Urban Migration – Moving from villages to cities. Urban-to-Rural Migration (Counterurbanization) – Moving from cities to countryside. Example: Chinese rural workers moving to Beijing vs. UK retirees moving to villages. By Migration Pattern Stepped Migration – Moving in stages, first to a small town, then to a city. Chain Migration – Moving to a place where family or community members already live. Example: Indian families moving to the UK over generations (chain migration).

Question 57

5(b) With the aid of examples, explain why the level of internal migration has increased in many HICs.

Answer 57

Better Job Opportunities and Higher Wages People move from smaller towns to cities for higher salaries and career growth. Example: Many young professionals in the USA move from rural areas to cities like New York and San Francisco. Housing Costs and Cost of Living Differences People migrate from expensive cities to cheaper areas for affordability. Example: Many Londoners move to smaller UK towns due to high rent costs. Remote Work and Digital Advancements Technology allows people to work from home, increasing migration to suburban and rural areas. Example: During COVID-19, many Americans moved from cities to rural towns due to remote work. Improved Transport Infrastructure High-speed trains and highways make commuting between cities easier, increasing migration. Example: France’s TGV trains allow people to live in small towns but work in Paris. Lifestyle and Quality of Life Preferences Many families leave crowded urban areas for better schools, environment, and safety. Example: People in Japan move from Tokyo to countryside areas for a quieter life.

Question 58

4(a) Describe the problems for countries caused by underpopulation. (7 marks)

Answer 58

In simple terms, underpopulation means there are not enough people to make full use of a country’s resources. This can cause several problems: Not enough workers – so it’s hard to run businesses and services. Higher labour costs – employers have to pay more to attract workers. More immigration may be needed – this can change the culture and economy. Fewer services – small populations might not support things like schools or hospitals. Less money for the government – fewer people paying taxes.

Question 59

4(b) With the aid of examples, explain why some areas in HICs may be underpopulated. (8 marks)

Answer 59

In rich countries (HICs), some areas have very few people because: The land is hard to live on – e.g. very cold, mountainous, or dry (like parts of Scotland). It’s far from cities or main roads, so it's hard to access jobs, shops, and services. People have moved away – often because of job loss in farming or industry. Young people leave to go to cities for work or university. Other areas are more attractive – like big cities with more jobs and better services. Examples like parts of northern Canada, the Scottish Highlands, or rural Japan could be used.

Question 60

5(a)(i) Define the term refugee. (3 marks)

Answer 60

A refugee is someone who: Has been forced to leave their country because of war, violence, or persecution, Crosses an international border to find safety, And cannot go back because they are afraid for their life or freedom.

Question 61

5(a)(ii) Outline the physical obstacles which may be faced by refugees. (4 marks)

Answer 61

Refugees can face difficult natural barriers when escaping, such as: Mountains – hard to cross, especially in bad weather. Deserts – very hot and dry, with little water or shelter. Rivers or oceans – dangerous to cross without boats. Fences or walls – built along some borders to stop movement. Each of these can make journeys long and dangerous.

Question 62

5(b) With the aid of examples, explain the social impacts on rural source areas of rural to urban migration in LICs/MICs. (8 marks)

Answer 62

When people move from the countryside to cities in low- or middle-income countries (LICs/MICs), it can cause social problems in the rural areas they leave behind: Fewer people remain – especially young adults. This means: The population becomes older, with more children and elderly who need care. There are fewer people to work on farms or in local services. Families can be split up – for example, one parent may go to the city while the other stays, affecting children and relationships. Traditional ways of life may change – as people return with new ideas or habits from the city. Fewer births may happen if young adults leave, changing the population structure. Services like schools or clinics may close – if fewer people use them. Example: In rural parts of northeast Brazil, many people migrate to São Paulo. As a result, rural communities are left with ageing populations and fewer services like schools or doctors.

Question 63

5(b) With the aid of examples, explain the social impacts on rural source areas of rural to urban migration in LICs/MICs. (8 marks)

Answer 63

When people move from the countryside to cities in low- and middle-income countries (LICs/MICs), the villages and rural towns they leave behind often face social problems, such as: Families are split up – often, young adults leave for jobs, leaving older relatives or children behind. This can make life harder for those left, especially for caring for children or the elderly. Fewer young people – the countryside may end up with more old people and children, and fewer working-age adults. This can cause population imbalance. Loss of community and culture – as people leave, some traditions, festivals, or local ways of life may disappear. Fewer births – fewer young couples staying in villages means the birth rate may drop, changing the age structure. School and health services might close – if there aren’t enough people using them, which makes life harder for those who remain. Example: In rural areas of northeast Brazil, many young people migrate to São Paulo. This leaves behind an older population, and some services (like schools) may shut due to low numbers.

Question 64

4(a)(i) Outline the concept of food security. (3 marks)

Answer 64

Food security means that people always have: Enough food to eat (sufficient), Food that is safe and healthy (nutritious), Food they can afford, Food available at all times (not just temporarily). It’s about being able to live an active and healthy life because of reliable access to good food.

Question 65

4(a)(ii) Suggest two environmental consequences of increasing food production. (4 marks)

Answer 65

Cutting down trees to make space for farms can cause loss of biodiversity and damage habitats. Using lots of chemicals (like fertilisers and pesticides) can pollute rivers and soil and harm wildlife. These actions can damage the land and water in the long term.

Question 66

4(b) With the aid of examples, explain why food shortages are becoming more common. (8 marks)

Answer 66

Food shortages are becoming more common for several reasons: Climate change – for example, droughts and floods are damaging crops in countries like Somalia or Pakistan. Population growth – more people means more demand for food. Conflict and war – food supply chains break down, like in Yemen or Sudan. Diseases and pests – such as locust swarms in East Africa eating crops. Poor transport or storage – food spoils before it reaches people, especially in rural areas of LICs. These problems are happening in many parts of Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.

Question 67

5(a)(i) Define the term migration. (2 marks)

Answer 67

Migration means when a person moves to live in a new place for a long time, usually for at least a year. It can be within a country or to a new country.

Question 68

5(a)(ii) Describe one human constraint and one physical constraint to migration. (5 marks)

Answer 68

Human constraint: High cost of travel – poor people may not afford tickets, passports, or moving fees. Physical constraint: Mountains or deserts – these are hard to cross, especially without transport or supplies. For example, the Sahara Desert is dangerous for many African migrants.

Question 69

5(b) With the aid of examples, explain why people migrate from one urban area to another urban area. (8 marks)

Answer 69

People move from one city to another for many reasons: Better job opportunities – for example, people may move from Lagos to Abuja in Nigeria to find work in the capital. More housing or lower living costs – some cities are cheaper or safer to live in. Better schools or hospitals – families move to access services. Political reasons – people may leave a city with conflict and move to a more stable one. This is called urban-to-urban migration, and it's common in growing economies.

Question 70

4(a) Outline the concepts of carrying capacity and optimum population. (7 marks)

Answer 70

Carrying capacity means the maximum number of people that an environment can support using the resources available like food, water, and shelter, without damaging the environment. Optimum population is when the number of people is just right for the resources available, so that everyone can enjoy a good standard of living (not too many or too few). For example, a country with lots of farmland but too few people to farm it is underpopulated. If it had just the right number of people, it would be at its optimum population.

Question 71

4(b) With the aid of examples, explain how overpopulation can occur. (8 marks)

Answer 71

Overpopulation happens when there are too many people for the resources available (like food, water, or jobs). This can happen because: High birth rates or migration increase the population quickly. Natural disasters (like droughts) can reduce the amount of food or water available. Overuse of land can lead to soil exhaustion, so it produces less food. Climate change can make farming harder. For example, in Bangladesh, floods reduce farmland, but the population is still growing, so there's not enough land or food for everyone.

Question 72

5(a) Compare the characteristics of economic migration flows with the characteristics of refugee flows. (7 marks)

Answer 72

Economic migrants Move by choice to earn more money Usually travel longer distances (e.g. to HICs) Travel using planes or legal transport May move alone (often men) Migration can be long-term or permanent Refugees Forced to leave because of danger (war, persecution) Often stay close to home (e.g. in neighbouring countries) Often travel on foot or by dangerous routes Often families with children Often short-term until it’s safe to go back

Question 73

5(b) With the aid of examples, suggest why refugee flows may increase in the future. (8 marks)

Answer 73

Refugee numbers might increase in the future because: More conflicts and wars (e.g. Syria, Sudan) force people to flee their homes. Climate change causes droughts, floods, or rising sea levels, pushing people to escape – e.g. people fleeing drought in Somalia. Natural disasters like earthquakes or hurricanes could force people to move. Persecution due to race, religion, or politics may increase. Global transport is improving, making it easier for people to escape. More awareness and support from international aid groups may encourage refugees to move. Example: Refugees from Rohingya communities in Myanmar fled to Bangladesh due to persecution and violence.

Question 74

4(a) With the aid of examples, describe the meaning of the terms natural increase and fertility rate. (7 marks)

Answer 74

Natural increase means the population is growing because more people are being born than are dying. For example, if the birth rate is 30 per 1000 and the death rate is 10 per 1000, the natural increase is 20 per 1000. Fertility rate is the average number of children a woman will have in her life. For example, a fertility rate of 2.1 is enough to replace the population. In countries like Niger, the fertility rate is over 6, while in Japan it’s below 1.5.

Question 75

4(b) With the aid of examples, explain why infant mortality rates may decrease as a country develops. (8 marks)

Answer 75

As a country becomes richer and more developed, fewer babies die. This happens because: Better healthcare – hospitals and trained doctors help more babies survive. Clean water and sanitation – reduces diseases like diarrhoea. More educated mothers – they know how to care for babies properly. Better food and nutrition – babies and mothers are healthier. Smaller families – easier for parents to care for each child. For example, in India, better healthcare and vaccination programs have helped reduce infant mortality over time.

Question 76

5(a) Compare the characteristics of chain migration with the characteristics of stepped migration. (7 marks)

Answer 76

Chain migration happens when one person from a place moves first and then others follow, like family or friends. Example: Someone from a village in Mexico moves to the USA, and later their cousin follows the same path. Stepped migration is when a person moves in stages – like from a village to a town, then to a city. Example: A person might first move to a local town for work, then to the capital city. Key differences: Chain = people follow someone they know. Stepped = one person moves gradually through places of increasing size. Chain involves social links; stepped is about geographic steps.

Question 77

5(b) With the aid of examples, explain why intra-urban migration has increased in many cities in LICs/MICs. (8 marks)

Answer 77

Intra-urban migration means people are moving within the same city. This is more common now because: People earn more money, so they move to better housing. Jobs and industries are now in different parts of the city – people move closer to work. Better transport makes it easier to move around the city. New shopping centres, schools, and hospitals are built in new areas, and people move to be near them. Governments rebuild or renew old areas, forcing or encouraging people to move. For example, in Lagos, Nigeria, people often move from slums to better housing areas or closer to jobs in the business districts.

Question 78

4(a) Describe the role of constraints in relation to sustaining a population. (7 marks)

Answer 78

Constraints are things that make it harder to support and care for a population. They can limit how many people an area can handle. These include: War and conflict – people may be killed or forced to move. Natural disasters – like floods or droughts can destroy homes and food. Lack of money – poor countries may not have enough food, healthcare, or housing. Disease and poor nutrition – people die younger, especially babies and children. Loss of natural resources – like soil becoming dry (desertification) or running out of water. Low education or poor healthcare – people can’t look after themselves or their families properly. For example, in parts of Sudan, war and drought have made it hard for the population to survive.

Question 79

4(b) With the aid of examples, explain how technology and innovation can increase food production in HICs. (8 marks)

Answer 79

Technology helps farmers in rich countries (HICs) grow more food by: Using machines with GPS to plant and harvest more accurately. Drones and sensors can check crops and water levels. Greenhouses and hydroponics let food grow all year. Genetically modified crops (GMOs) grow faster and resist pests. Selective breeding of animals and plants gives better yields. Better food storage and packaging reduce waste. For example, in the Netherlands, vertical farms and high-tech greenhouses produce large amounts of vegetables using little space.

Question 80

5(a)(i) Define the term economic migrant. (3 marks)

Answer 80

An economic migrant is someone who: Chooses to move (not forced), To find better jobs or higher income, and Usually stays for a long time (more than one year).

Question 81

5(a)(ii) Explain two negative impacts on the source area of the loss of economic migrants. (4 marks)

Answer 81

Fewer workers – young people leave to work abroad, so there are not enough workers for farms or factories at home. This slows down the economy. Loss of skilled people – doctors or teachers might leave, so services like schools and hospitals get worse. This can cause a "brain drain".

Question 82

5(b) Using a case study, explain the causes of one international migration stream. (8 marks)

Answer 82

Example: Mexico to the USA People move from Mexico to the USA because: Push factors (reasons to leave Mexico): Low wages and poverty. Crime and violence in some areas. Few job opportunities in rural areas. Pull factors (reasons to go to the USA): Better-paying jobs and more work options. Good healthcare and education. Safer communities and more freedom. Also, many people have family or friends already in the USA, which encourages more to follow (this is called chain migration).

Question 83

4(a) Compare the economic issues of a youthful population with those of an ageing population. (7 marks)

Answer 83

A youthful population (lots of young people): The government must spend more on schools, childcare, and vaccinations. There are not many working adults, so less tax money is collected. Jobs are needed in the future, or youth unemployment becomes a problem. But they can help the economy later if there are enough jobs. An ageing population (many elderly people): The government has to pay more for pensions and healthcare. There are fewer workers, so the economy may grow more slowly. Elderly people pay less tax, which means less money for services. But some older people spend savings, which helps the economy in other ways. Comparison: Both groups cost the government a lot, but for different reasons — young people need investment now, while older people need support after retirement.

Question 84

4(b) With the aid of examples, explain how social factors may influence levels of fertility in a country. (8 marks)

Answer 84

Fertility (birth rate) can be affected by social factors like: Status of women: In places where women have less education or power, they often have more children. For example, in parts of Niger, women marry young and often have many children. Cultural or religious beliefs: Some cultures or religions encourage large families or don’t support contraception. Age of marriage: Marrying young gives more time to have more children. Education: In countries where women are educated (e.g. Sweden), they often choose to have fewer children later in life. Family planning: If contraceptives are available and accepted, fertility is lower.

Question 85

5(a)(i) Define the term forced (involuntary) migration. (3 marks)

Answer 85

Forced migration happens when a person has no choice but to leave their home. They move because of danger to their life or safety, such as: War Natural disasters Persecution (e.g. because of religion or politics) The move usually lasts more than a year.

Question 86

5(a)(ii) Describe two economic impacts of forced migration on receiving/destination areas. (4 marks)

Answer 86

Positive impact: Migrants can fill job shortages, especially in farming, construction, or care work. For example, Syrian refugees have helped fill jobs in Turkey and Germany. Negative impact: The government may have to spend more money on housing, food, schools, and healthcare for the migrants.

Question 87

5(b) With the aid of examples, explain how push and pull factors influence the decision to migrate. (8 marks)

Answer 87

Migration happens because of: Push factors – reasons to leave: Lack of jobs Poverty Conflict or violence Natural disasters Example: People leave Syria due to civil war. Pull factors – reasons to go to a new place: Better jobs Higher pay Safety and peace Education and healthcare Example: Many Syrians move to Germany for safety and better living conditions.

Question 88

4(a) Describe the causes of food shortages. (7 marks)

Answer 88

Food shortages happen when people don’t have enough food to eat. Causes include: Natural disasters like floods, droughts, fires, or pests destroying crops. Soil problems – like desertification or poor farming methods. Wars and conflict – food supply chains are broken. Poor transport or storage – food spoils before reaching people. Rapid population growth – demand for food rises faster than supply. High food prices – poor people can’t afford enough food. Example: In South Sudan, conflict and drought have caused major food shortages.

Question 89

4(b) With the aid of examples, explain the consequences of food shortages. (8 marks)

Answer 89

Food shortages can cause serious problems: Social: People may die of hunger, suffer from malnutrition, or migrate to survive. Economic: Food becomes more expensive, and farmers may switch to different crops. Environmental: People may overuse land, causing soil erosion or deforestation. Political: Shortages can lead to riots, conflict, or governments asking for international aid. Example: In Somalia, food shortages have caused widespread malnutrition and people fleeing to refugee camps.

Question 90

5(a) With the aid of examples, describe the difference between obstacles, constraints and barriers to migration. (7 marks)

Answer 90

Obstacle: A challenge that slows someone down but they can still migrate. Example: A mountain range or needing a visa. Constraint: A limitation that makes migration harder or delays it. Example: Not enough money for transport or family ties making it hard to leave. Barrier: A complete block that stops migration. Example: A border wall or a law banning migration. Obstacles and constraints might be overcome, but barriers stop migration completely.

Question 91

5(b) With the aid of examples, explain why governments might attempt to control internal migration. (8 marks)

Answer 91

Governments try to control where people move inside a country to avoid problems: Environmental: To stop people moving into areas with limited water or land, like deserts. Social: To reduce overcrowding in cities or help rural areas that are losing people. Economic: To make sure resources like housing, jobs, and transport are available where needed. Political: To keep peace and avoid tensions between groups or in crowded urban areas. Example: In China, the Hukou system tries to stop too many people moving from rural areas to cities by limiting access to city jobs and services.

Question 92

4(a) Describe the stages of the demographic transition model (DTM). (7 marks)

Answer 92

The Demographic Transition Model (DTM) explains how birth rates and death rates change over time in a country: Stage 1 – High Fluctuating: Both birth rate (BR) and death rate (DR) are high. Population stays low and grows very slowly. Stage 2 – Early Expanding: DR starts to fall because of better healthcare and sanitation. BR stays high, so population grows quickly. Stage 3 – Late Expanding: BR begins to fall (more family planning, education). DR stays low. Population still grows, but slower. Stage 4 – Low Fluctuating: BR and DR are both low. Population growth is small or stable. Stage 5 (optional): BR falls below DR. Population may shrink. Example: The UK is in Stage 4. Japan is in Stage 5.

Question 93

4(b) With the aid of examples, explain why population change in LICs/MICs may not follow the DTM. (8 marks)

Answer 93

The DTM was based on Europe’s past. LICs and MICs may not follow the same pattern because: Death rates fall faster due to modern medicine being available quickly. Some LICs/MICs start with higher birth rates than Europe ever had. Cultural and religious values may keep birth rates high longer. Government policies and aid from NGOs can affect population change. Conflict, migration, or disease (e.g. HIV/AIDS in some African countries) change population in unexpected ways. Example: In Bangladesh, birth rates dropped fast due to family planning campaigns, but it didn't follow the same slow change as Europe did.

Question 94

5(a) With the aid of examples, describe the main types of internal (within a country) migration. (7 marks)

Answer 94

Internal migration means moving within the same country. Types include: Rural to urban – moving to cities for jobs or education. Example: People moving from northeast Brazil to São Paulo. Urban to rural – often in HICs for better lifestyle. Example: From London to rural areas in the UK. Urban to urban – moving from one city to another for work or housing. Example: From Lagos to Abuja in Nigeria. Intra-urban – moving within a city, like from city centre to suburbs. Example: Students moving from family homes to inner-city flats.

Question 95

5(b) With the aid of examples, explain why the level of internal migration tends to increase as a country develops economically. (8 marks)

Answer 95

As countries grow richer, more people move within the country because: Better roads and transport make travel easier. More people own cars or afford tickets. People have more money and can afford to move. Jobs and services are spread out, so people move to be closer to work, shops, or schools. People are more aware of other places from media and education. Families may be less tied to one place, so it’s easier to move. Example: In India, economic growth has led to more people moving between cities for jobs or better living conditions.