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PAM Semester 1 > Physiology Exam 4 > Flashcards

Physiology Exam 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

How do sphincters work

A

They are aones of resting pressure that relax with stimulus

Smooth muscle sphincters are closed when their inhibitory innervation is inactive.

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2
Q

Where does the vast majority of digestion and absorption take places

A

The small intestine

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3
Q

What does testosterone exert negative feedback loop on

A

LH

FSH

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4
Q

Main gastric enzyme in protein digestion

A

Pepsin

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5
Q

Liver blood supply

A

splanchnic circulation
25% form hepatic artery (oxy)
75% from portal vein (deoxy)

High flow, high compliance, low resistance system

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6
Q

What forms does CA2+ exist in plasma

A

45% free ionized Ca2+
45% bound to plasma proteins (ie albumin)
10% complexed with anions

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7
Q

most abundant female hormone

A

estradiol

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8
Q

Lipoproteins starting with more chloesterol and less protein

A

Chylomicrons
VLDL
LDL
HDL

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9
Q

PTH and Phosphate feed back

A

PTH causes excretion of phosphate

Vitamin D causes reabsorbtion of phosphate

Balances out

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10
Q

describe chloride shift in pancreas

A

As rate of secretion increases in pancreas the rate of bicarb increases as well

A chloride shift occurs to keep ionic balance

Bicarb goes out as chloride goes back in

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11
Q

Vitamin E

A

Acts as an antioxidant to protect cell membranes

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12
Q

Phases of gastric stimulation

cephalic

A

Cephalic (feed forward mechanism)

Stimulus = Thought of food

Pathway = Vagus nerve → parietal cells → G cells

Stimulate gastric secretions even before food is swallowed

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13
Q

What is precursor to glycogen

A

Uridine diphosphate glucose

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14
Q

5 enzymes that help control pancreatic secretion

A 
Secretin
Gastrin (GRP)
ACh
CCK
Substance P
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15
Q

What induces the urge to defecate

A

Distention of rectum

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16
Q

Factors affecting gastric emptying

A 
Type of food
Temp of food
Body position
Stomach PH
Emotional state
Diseases
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17
Q

When does menses occur

A

day 28 around to day 4 ish

beginning and end of cycle

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18
Q

Menopause

A

Age 45-55
decline in estrogen
increase in LH and FSH

osteoporosis

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19
Q

why doesnt menstrual flow clot

A

fibrinolysin

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20
Q

Chemical digestion

A

Series of hydrolysis (break bonds) reactions that break dietary macromolecules (polymers) into their monomers (residues)

Carried out by digestive enzymes produced by salivary glands, stomach, pancreas, and small intestine

Polysaccharides → monosaccharides
Proteins → Amino Acids
Fats → Monoglycerides and fatty acids
Nucleic acids → Nucleotides

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21
Q

4 major receptor types

A

Ligand gated ion channels
g coupled protein receptors (secondary messengers)
catalytic recpetors
intrcellular receptors

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22
Q

Liver sinusoids

A

Very porous

Allow large flux of fluid and proteins into the perisinusoidal space

Sinusoidal epithelia form large quantities of lymph
Make up more than half of lymph

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23
Q

What inhibits insulin

A

Somatostatin
Nor epi
Epi

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24
Q

What is trypsinogen

A

it activates pancreatic enzymes once they are in the duodenum

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25
What cells line bile ducts
Choliangiocytes These secrete bicarbonate rich fluid into the billiary tree
26
What does the bulbourethral gland in males do
pre lubrication of urethra | neutralize the acidity of urethra
27
lingual lipase
Breaks down fat but does not get activated until it reaches the stomach
28
Describe process epi helps with in liver
Glycogenolyis
29
GnRH
Gonadotropin releasing hormone
30
phases of secretion after a meal in pancreas | Gastric
Gastric (feed forward) Gastric distention release of gastrin and Ach cause increase secretion form pancreas
31
Describe compaction in the 5 stages of digestion
Absorption of water and consolidating the indigestible into feces
32
Types of nutrients that can be absorbed directly in their usable form
``` Vitamins Amino acids Minerals Cholesterols water ```
33
peristalsis contraction
Circular muscle contracts behind bolus | relaxation of cicular muscle in front of bolus
34
Describe Vitamin B12
Vitamin B12 is one of the eight water-soluble B vitamins. The intestinal absorption of B12 depends on an intrinsic factor secreted from the stomach parietal cell. Vitamins are water or fat soluble Vitamin B12 comes from eggs, liver animal products (cobalamins) Highly involved in helping us from healthy hemoglobin and red blood cells B12 deficiency can result in anemia (pernicious anemia) Must have intrinsic factor to absorb B12 Intrinsic factor comes from parietal cells in stomach
35
What effect does progesterone have on endometrium
as progesterone remains high, endometrial lining remains As progesterone levels fall, you lose endometrial lining (menstruation)
36
What does insulin do in liver
Glycogen synthesis Converts glucose to triglycerides Protein synthesis
37
Where is majority of glycogen stored
Liver is the mainstorage site for glucose and glycogen
38
blood testes barrier
seperates sperm from immune system sertoli cells form tight junctions germ cells are differnet so immun system will attack them
39
What do RBC's and the renal medulla depend on for energy
totallt dependant on blood glucose
40
Increased blood flow after a meal is called
postprandial hyperemeia
41
Sertoli cells (nurse cells)
in semineferous tubules FSH binds to these cells produce estradiol regulate release of FSH through "inhibin" to stop sperm produciton but continue testosterone production
42
what happens in follicular phase
rise in FSH follicle grows Estradiol increases ends in ovulation
43
Corpus cavernosa
2 columns of erectile tissue
44
What does insulin do in adipose tissue
Increases glucose uptake via (glut 4) Storage of triglycerides Allows the fatty acids into cell to become triglycerides
45
Ortho colic reflex
Urge to defecate upon standing
46
Describe Glucagon in liver
It is catabolic Glycogenolysis (also gluconeogenesis)
47
Primary vs secondary peristalsis in esophageal motility
Primary is act of swallowing | Secondary is involuntary peristalsis (food lodged)
48
What are gastric agonists
ACh (Vagus nerve stimulation results in the release of Ach) Histamine (hormone) Gastrin (Hormone) Works through secondary messenger system (Ca+, cAMP)
49
Granulosa cells
receptors for follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes follicle to mature produces estradiol with testosterone from theca cells Produces progesterone
50
What does the enteric nervous system do
Gi tract own nervous system which is independent of the rest of the autonomic nervous system Responsible for much of the moment-to-moment control of gut motility and secretion. The myenteric plexus is mainly involved with control of gut motility and innervates the inner circular and outer longitudinal smooth muscle layers. The submucosal plexus coordinates intestinal absorption and secretion through its innervation of the glandular epithelium, intestinal endocrine cells, and submucosal blood vessels.
51
What stimulate GnRH in females
kisspeptin (neurotransmitter) Leptni simulates kisspeptin GnRH stimulate FSH/LH Estradiol
52
phases of secretion after a meal in pancreas | Cephalic
Cephalic (feed forward) Increases secretion of pancreatic juice Occurs through the release of Ach, gastrin and by vagal stimulation
53
Long term stress Response
Pituitary ``` Retention of sodium increase blood volume and pressure increased BGL Immune system suppression fatigue ```
54
What are Paneth Cells, where are they and what do they do
They are cells in the intestinal crypt They function like neutrophils and produce antimicrobial substances that provide a protective barrier
55
Gastric enzymes
Pepsin Gastric amylase Gastric Lipase Intrinsic factor
56
What is transferrin
Transferrin is the molecule that can move iron through the blood
57
What happens to the follicle
most go to atresia the chosen one goes on to mature After rupturing, the follicle becomes a corpus luteum.
58
What is motilin
GI hormone Stimulates Motility of Gi tract
59
Sperm and mitochondria
Sperm has no mitochondria | all mitochondria comes from the mother
60
Describe insulin effect on potassium
action of insulin is increased cellular uptake of potassium Also used to treat hyperkalemia
61
How are ketones formed
Beta oxidation During prolonged starvation and in diabetes it is highly elevated (ketosis) Long term fat metabolism
62
``` Cells of Gastric secretion G cells (enteroendocrine cells) ```
Secretes Gastrin Gastrin secretion is a trigger for secretion from the parietal cells and the chief cells
63
Preferred substrate of brai
Glucose • Brain and CNS rely on using glucose
64
What do H2 blockers do
H2 blockers are commonly used for the treatment of peptic ulcer disease and GERD
65
What happens in luteal phase
progesterone increases | corpus luteum matures
66
What happens in ovulatory phase
day 14 ish LH surges causes ovulation estradiol decreases positive feedback
67
Egg stages
``` oogonia pirmary oocyte -------------(meiosis) secondary oocyte (& polar body) (meiosis II) if fertilized, If not it dies zygote embryo ```
68
Describe Parasympathetic salivation
Parasympathetic salivation Rich in electrolytes Rich in amylase Increased salivation
69
Testosterone effect on hypothlamus and anterior pituitary
Inhibits
70
Secretion in which of the following tissues or glands is dependent mainly on parasympathetic nerve stimulation and not hormones? A. Exocrine pancreas B. Parotid gland C. Small intestine D. Stomach
B. Parotid gland
71
What forms does phosphate occur in the plsama
80% alkaline phosphate HPO4 2- | 20% acid phosphateH2PO4-
72
Mechanical digestion
Physical break down of food cutting, grinding, churning teeth, small intestiners, stomach exposes more surface area to digestive enzymes
73
What is ghrelin
GI hormone Stomach grumbles, ghrelin is secreted Hunger hormone
74
What is C peptide
Is a product of pro insulin is a 1 to 1 ratio of insulin can be used as a marker of insulin production
75
Ways the stomach inhibits Acid in stomach
If pH falls below 3, endocrine cells (D cells) in the antrum, secrete somatostatin Somatostatin inhibits the release of gastrin and thus HCL Acidification of the duodenal lumen Acidification stimulates the release of secretin which in turn inhibits the release of gastrin HCL secretion is important only during digestion of food Excess HCL can damage mucosal surfaces
76
Process of pepsin secretion
Food ingested pH of gastric acid changes (pH goes up, more basic) The increase in pH stimulates G cells to produce gastrin Gastrin then stimulates parietal and chief cells Chief cells secrete pepsinogen Pepsinogen then gets cleaved into Pepsin by HCL from parietal cell Pepsin then can go break peptide bonds of amino acids in proteins The short chain broken down amino acids can also activate the G cells
77
Sinusoidal epithelial cells (SEC) function
results in large drop in blood pressure and blood flow
78
what are 3 phases of secretion after a meal in pancreas
Cephalic (feed forward) Increases secretion of pancreatic juice Occurs through the release of Ach, gastrin and by vagal stimulation Gastric (feed forward) Gastric distention release of gastrin and Ach cause increase secretion form pancreas Intestinal (feedback mechanism) Secretin inhibits further movement of chyme from stomach CCK causes increased secretion of pancreatic juice
79
Type 1 vs type 2 diabetes
Type 1 insulin dependant pancreas does not produce insulin Type 2 is desensitization of insulin receptors No bonding, no glut transporters,
80
What do the intestinal crypts secrete
Mucous, H2O and electrolytes
81
How are Fats/Lipids digested and absorbed
Lipase that activates once in the stomach (gastric, lingual, pancreatic lipase) Break down into micelles Micelles then cross brush border The micelles break down into chylomicrons Then goes into the lymphatic system
82
Acid prodcution rate of gastric secretion
Acid production in the stomach parallels rates of gastric secretion Sodium and Hydrogen ions are inverse The faster the rate of secretion, the more H+ ions and less sodium ions and the more HCL
83
What are hydroxyapatite crystals
Components of bone | contain CA2+ and phosphate
84
Pancreatic enzymes
Enzymes are inactive in pancreas ``` Trypsin Chymotrypsin Lipase Carboxypeptidase Elastases Nucleases Pancreatic enzymes ``` Also secrets sodium bicarbonate which neutralizes the acidity of the chyme
85
scrotal mechanisms to regulat temp
cremaster muscle retracts scrotum Dartos fascia sub cutaneaou smooth muscle shrinks scrotum Pampiniform plexus network of veins and arteries to remove heat
86
What are inhibitory neurotransmitters of the enteric nervous system
ATP Nitric oxide
87
Leydig cells
interstitum (between seminepherous tubules) produce testosterone LH bonds to these cells
88
Epi cascade
``` Tyrosine DOPA Dopamine Norepi Epi ```
89
How is the enteric nervous system linked to the CNS
The ENS is linked to the central nervous system (CNS) via the sensory and motor nerves of the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS).
90
In a study in which the volume of the gastric reservoir was recorded with an intragastric barostat in a normal subject, the volume of the reservoir increased and the wall compliance increased simultaneously at the onset of a swallow. This form of relaxation in the gastric reservoir is best described as A. receptive relaxation. B. gastric distension. C. adaptive relaxation. D. feedback relaxation.
A. receptive relaxation.
91
What is Haustration
Haustration is reminiscent of the mixing (segmentation) movements in the small intestine
92
How is sodium absorbed in the gut
Sodium absorption in the gut depends on the sodium potassium pump
93
2 layers of endometrium
funtional layer (sheds during menstruation) basal layer (produces the new functional layer)
94
What causes splanchnic vasodilation
Hormones (high levels of cholecystokinin Action of enteric nerves (VIPergic)
95
Gastro ileal reflex
Feed forward mechanism Food in stomach increases motility of ileum
96
Islets of langerhans cells
Have alpha, beta and delta cells ``` Alpha = glucagon Beta = insulin Delta = Somatostatin ```
97
What stimulates insulin
Hyperglycemia AA Fatty acids GI hormones ACh
98
What are the major regulated processes of the enteric nervous system
Gut motility epithelial secretion blood flow
99
What are the pacemaker cells of the enteric nervous system
Interstitual cells of Cajal (ICC) enteric nervous systems own pacemaker cells located in the myenteric plexus
100
Gastro colic reflex
Feed forward | Gastric distention increases colonic motility
101
Where is bile concentrated
the gallbladder
102
Stages of follicle
``` Primordial follicle Primary Secondary Early tertiary Graffian follicle ``` Ovulation Egg is free from follicle now corpus luteum corpus albicans Breaks down unless pregnancy (becomes placenta)
103
What does ovary produce
Mature ovum progestins androgens estrogens
104
where does majority of semen come from
seminal vesicles 75% fructose coagulation of semen
105
How does penis dialate
Nitric oxide
106
pheochromocytoma
hypersecretion of catecholamines epi / norepi increased temp, sweating, HR RR BGL
107
What color is corpus albicans
white
108
What do goblet cells do
Secrete various mucins
109
Describe defecation in the 5 stages of digestion
Elimination of feces
110
Process of testosterone production
LH binds to Leydig cell receptors g protein secondary messenger cascade (cAMP) Cholesterol + STAR protein make stestosterone
111
How is Iron absorbed
Must be ferrous iron to be absorbed Fe2+ Enterocytes absorb iron in duodenum Then gets transported across brush border and binds to transferrin Transferrin is the molecule that can move iron through the blood
112
Ileo - gastric reflex
Feed back mechanism Ileal distention causes inhibition of gastric motility
113
Describe Muscularis externa
3rd layer from inside of 4 smooth muscle layer 2 types inner circular layer outer longitudinal layer mechanically churns food
114
Most potent form of testosterone
DHT
115
Major functions of liver
Detoxification of hormones, drugs, waste products Metabolism of carbs proteins and fats Storage of iron and vitamins Hormone production Innate and adaptive immunity
116
What are inhibitory gastric hormones
Somastatin | secretin
117
What is glucagons pupose
break down adipose tissue, break downglycogen to increase blood glucose levels Secretion is stimulated by hypoglycemia, epi, vagal, AA Inhibited by Hyperglycemia, insulin, somatostatin
118
Basic unit of salivary gland
Salivon
119
Define paracrine hormone
Hormone that is direct cell to cell
120
what are 2 secondary messengers for release of secretions
Ca+ | cAMP
121
Calcitonin
Comes from the parafollicular cells (thyroid) Has the opposite effect of PTH if calcium levels go up, calcitonin trys to reduce the calcium levels bone ca2+ reabsorption, urinary excretion of phosphate and calcium Phosphate and calcium levels decrease
122
Adrenal Cortex GFR Medulla
``` G = Mineral corticoids = aldosterone F = Glucocorticoids = Cortisol R = Androgens = DHEA Medulla = EPI/NorEPI (chromaffin cells) ```
123
5 stages of digestion
``` Ingestion Digestion Absorption Compaction Defecation ```
124
When does GH peak
during sleep | during adolescence
125
Describe thyroid
rich blood supply delivery of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), iodide, and substrates to the thyroid gland. adrenergic system have direct effects on cells Follicular cells and colloid produce T3 and T4 Parafollicular cells produce calcitonin
126
What is the action of cortisol
anti insulin pressor anitinflammatory immune functions moved via albumin Is circadian, peaks during day, low at night
127
How are non essential amino acids formed
The liver can form nonessential amino acids from the essential amino acids. The liver is the body’s only source of nonessential amino acids
128
Stellate cell function
Store fat in distinct cytoplasmic lipid droplets containing vitamin A Vitamin A storage
129
Which of the following is not a physiologic effect of CCK? A. Gallbladder contraction B. Stimulation of bile acid synthesis C. Stimulation of pancreatic enzyme secretion D. Relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi
B. Stimulation of bile acid synthesis
130
How much of electrolytes are absorbed in the gut
Approximately 98% of the electrolytes in the gut are reabsorbed.
131
During an experiment elucidating control of gastric acid secretion, you determine that the stomach releases a paracrine substance that inhibits gastrin release whenever the pH of the gastric mucosa drops below 3. This peptide is most likely: A. Histamine B. ACh C. Gastrin D. somatostatin.
D. somatostatin.
132
What does the graffian follicle do
Mature graffian follicle contains the oocyte and is surrounded by granulosa cells
133
What is secretin
GI hormone Comes from s cells in duodenum Stimulus is increase in acid (H+) in small intestine Increases pancreatic enzyme secretion inhibts gastric acid secretion
134
What is the main neurotransmitter in stimulation of Enteric nervous system
ACh for secretion and motility
135
phases of secretion after a meal in pancreas | Intestinal
Intestinal (feedback mechanism) Secretin inhibits further movement of chyme from stomach CCK causes increased secretion of pancreatic juice
136
How do nucleic acids breakdown
Nucleases of pancreatic juice hydrolyze DNA and RNA to nucleotides Nucleosidases and phosphatases of brush border split them into phosphate ions, ribose or deoxyribose sugar, and nitrogenous bases Membrane carriers allow absorption Nucleotides can then cross into the blood stream
137
What anatomical features increase the surface area of small intestine
Cylindrical shape Circular folds Microvilli Villi Nutrient absorption does not occur without contacting the microvilli brush border
138
Average female cycle
28 days
139
What kind of control is gastric secretion under
neural | hormonal
140
What secrets leptin
Adipocytes
141
What happens if you lack iodide
this limits T3 and T4 synthesis This causes chronic stimulation of TSH secretion This produces goiter Low iodine, low T3/T4, increased TSH, goiter
142
What are the regions sympthetic nerves influence
Thoracolumbar region Celiac superior and inferior mesenteric Fight or flight, inhibits digestive functions
143
Two types of hormones (solubility)
water soluble (protein based) Receptor is on plasma membrane (can't cross) secondary messenger process after that (ie insulin) fat/lipid soluble (direct gene expression) Needs proteins to transport it through blood (albumin) can diffuse through plasma membrane receptor is in nucleus, then affects gene expression
144
What hormones regulate CA2+ and phosphate
``` Parthyroid hormone (PTH) Vitamin D ```
145
DEscribe the islets of langerhans make up
Blood flows through the islets of Langerhans from the center toward the periphery so that the α-cells receive a high concentration of insulin; insulin suppresses glucagon secretion Alpha cells surround islets Beta cells are in the center Delta cells are mixed in randomly
146
Phases of gastric stimulation | intestinal
Stimulus = Protein digestion products in duodenum, distention Amino acids in blood → intestinal endocrine cells Gastrin briefly stimulate stomach, but then secretin, CCK and enterogastric reflex inhibit gastric secretion and motility Gives us a chance to digest what is already in the intestine Sympathetic nervous system will also inhibit digestion Parasympathetic activates digestion (rest and digest) Sympathetic inhibits digestion (fight or flight)
147
What are the regions parasympthetic nerves influence
Cranio sacral pelvic nerves vagus nerve Vagus is most of the gi tract Sacral pelvic nerves i the latter half of large intestine Rest and digest, stimulate digestion
148
Describe Submucosa layer
Connective tissue second innermost layer of 4 Extensive vasculature and nerves Lots of regulation and secretion
149
What is the main target organ of glucagon
the liver
150
What are Choliangiocytes
Cells that line the bile ducts They secrete bicarbonate rich fluid into the billiary tree
151
What happens if the amount of secretions surpass the absorption rate of the small intestine
watery diarrhea
152
Where does most of lymph come from
Sinusoidal epithelia form large quantities of lymph Make up more than half of lymph
153
Drug metabolism in liver
Hepatocytes are involved in metabolism of xenobiotics (foreign substances) Hydrophobic substances are converted to hydrophilic to be eliminated • Cytochrome p-450 breaks down drugs
154
What is the functional unit of the small intestine
The crypt villous unit
155
How does the body store glucose
Glycogen and triglycerides Glycogen is short term storage
156
Corpus luteum vs Albicans
Corpus luteum (yellow) becomes Corpus albicans (white) no more progesterone production
157
Cells of Gastric secretion | Chief Cells
Secretes pepsinogen and lipase
158
How are Proteins digested and absorbed
Protein breakdown does not start till stomach Pepsin in stomach Protease’s from pancreas (activated in small intestine) Brush border enzymes breakdown into amino acids Then absorbed into blood
159
Cells of Gastric secretion
Mucosa of stomach is lined by various cells ``` Surface mucous cells Mucous neck cells Parietal Cells Chief Cells G cells ```
160
Explain GI motility in relation to slow waves, contraciton and spike potential
Interstitual cells of cajal stimulate Slow waves are smooth muscle oscillations Must have spike potentials to push it past the threshold Once at threshold, mucle contraction occurs Ca2+ trigger excitation K+ inhibits
161
What causes the secretion of secretin
Acidic Chyme in duodenum Secretin also enchances the the flow of bile rich bicarb from the liver
162
what is the functional structure in which the oocyte develops
Follicle
163
The parents of a 5-year-old male received a diagnosis of hypertrophic pyloric stenosis, which is characterized by an absence of electrical slow waves at the gastroduodenal junction. In describing the pathophysiology, the pediatric gastroenterologist explained that a specialized population of cells is missing from the child’s intestine. Which of the following kind of cells is most likely missing? A. Parietal cells B. Interstitial cells of Cajal C. Enteroendocrine cells D. Kuffer cells
B. Interstitial cells of Cajal
164
What is somatostatin action on glucagon
inhibits glucagon
165
Glycogenlysis is
Breakdown of glycogen to release glucose
166
Down regulation
Cells decrese their receptors for a weaker response
167
What is albumin function
Albumin helps to preserve plasma volume and tissue fluid balance by maintaining the colloid osmotic pressure of plasma.
168
Choliangiocyte function
Modulate bile flow through the bile ducts
169
Disorders of defective bone mineralization
Rickets and osteomalacia Paget disease is a chronic disorder leading to enlarged and deformed bones
170
Important plasma proteins synthesized in the liver
Albumin Transferrin Fibrinogen Others
171
What are the main endocrine functions of the liver | Hormone degredations
Insulin degradation Glucagon degradation hGH degradation GI hormone degradation
172
What is addisons disease
absence of cortisol ``` hypoglycemia weakness, fatigue aldosterone deficiency hypotension hypovolemia ``` hyperkalemia
173
How often is the epithelial lining of small intestine replaced
every 3 days
174
Colono gastric reflex
Feedback mechanism | Colonic distention decreases gastric motility
175
What helps prevent osteoporosis
testosterone
176
what is cut in vasectomy
vas deferens
177
2 methods of digestion
Chemical (enzymes) | mechanical
178
How is B12 absorbed
Intrinsic factor from parietal cells of stomach
179
GH disorders
Gigantism, tumor before plates close acromegaly excess secretion after puberty acondroplasia defect in FGF Cretinism = hypothyroidism
180
Describe absorption in the 5 stages of digestion
uptake of nutrien moleculs into the epithelial cells of the digestive tract and then into the blood and lymph
181
What do the pancreatic duct cells secrete into the pancreatic fluid?
electrolytes | h20
182
Hyperthyroidism
increased thyroid hormones and decreased TSH Primary is uncontrolled secretion of thyroid hormones from thyroid gland secondary is uncontrolled secretion of TSH from Ant. Pituitary Graves, goiter, autoimmune
183
Cells of Gastric secretion | Surface mucous cells
Secretes mucin in an alkaline fluid
184
Where are pancreatic enzymes created
Acinar cells of the exocrine pancreas
185
What kind of disorder is it in the anterior pituitary
secondary disorder
186
What does exercise do for Glut 4
GLUT4 is directly stimulated by increased muscle work via AMP kinase due to exercise exercise is a mechanism to decrease blood sugar
187
What is detoxification pathway in liver
Toxins phase 1 phase 2 elimination
188
What does the submucosal plexus of the enteric nervous system do
The submucosal plexus coordinates intestinal absorption and secretion through its innervation of the glandular epithelium, intestinal endocrine cells, and submucosal blood vessels. in th submucosa layer secretion, absorption, blood flow, and endocrine cell activity
189
Cells of Gastric secretion | Parietal Cells
Secretes HCL and intrinsic factor
190
How are bile and bilirubin related
Bile helps with bilirubin excretion
191
Prime temp fro sprem production
35 celsius
192
Five inhibitory motor neurons to the circular muscle of the colon are shown in association with the formation of haustra. Which of the five numbered neurons is/are most likely to be silent (inhibited)? ``` A. 2 B. 4 C. 2 and 4 D. 5 E. 1, 3, and 5 ```
C. 2 and 4 | the two depressions
193
What are the main endocrine functions of the liver | Hormone activations
VItamin D activation T4 to T3 conversion IGF modification
194
How are fatty acids transported through the blood
Albumin
195
What is ejaculation
Contraction of urethra | expulsion of semen
196
What is potentiation
Occurs when the effect of two stimulants is greater than the effect of either stimulant alone The agonists potentiate one another • Potentiation also occurs for pancreas
197
Describe Mucosa layer
inner layer Epithelium Lamina propria Muscularis mucosae
198
What do intestinal secretions do
provide lubrication and protective functions
199
What does oxytocin do?
Contraction of uterus (smooth muscle) Stimulates milk ejection/production (let down reflex) Dialate cervix social bond, climax, arousal
200
Frequency of slow waves
3 waves per minute in pylorum 12 waves per minute in duodenum 2-13 waves per minute in colon
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Large intestine motility
Distention of the colon can also act as a strong stimulus. Power propulsion is unique to the large intestine. Gastro colic reflex (feed forward) Chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors in cecum provide feeback Occasional giant migrating contractions (mass movements) propel fecal material into the rectum.
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Amylase
Breask down carbs and starches
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How does T4 convert to T3
deiodination reactions occur in tissues Conversion from T4 to T3 in the peripheral tissues using enzymes can be inactivated as well
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salivary secretions
amylase lingual lipase Parasympathetic salivation Sympathetic salivation Antibodies as well as antimicrobial secretions in saliva
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Describe digestion in the 5 stages of digestion
mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into a form usable by the body
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Is insulin anabolic or catabolic
anabolic
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What does the myenteric plexus of the enteric nervous system do
The myenteric plexus is mainly involved with control of gut motility and innervates the inner circular and outer longitudinal smooth muscle layers. in the muscularis propria layer controls sphincter activity. regulates peristalisis
208
What are the 3 types of bile
Primary Bile acids Secondary Bile Acids Bile salts
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What is unique about liver blood supply
It has a dual blood supply
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How do the pancreatic enzymes get to the duodenum
through the duct of wirsung | through the sphincter of oddi
211
Male reproductive hormone cascade
``` Brain Hypothalamus (GnRH) Anterior pituitary FSH & LH Testes Testosterone (stimulated) ```
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What does insulin do in skeletal muscle
Increases glucose uptake via (glut 4) Glycogen & glycolysis synthesis decreases fat breakdown
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What do parietal cells secrete
``` HCL Intrinsic factor (for b12) ```
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hypothyroidism
lower than normal thyroid hormone 1% of population primary high TSH Thyroid gland issue secondary Low TSH Ant pituitary issue (low TSH) hashimoto, autoimmune
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What is fibrinolysin
Prostate secretion thin milky secretion breaks down / liquifies coagulated sperm 15-30 minutes later
216
Food in duodenum is called
chyme | food before duodenum is bolus
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Hepatocyte function
Metabolism
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Main digestive gland of the body
Pancreas
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What is the main carbohydrate stored in liver
Glycogen
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What is the catcholamine response to hypoglycemia
inhibits insulin gluconeogenysisglucose formation glycogenolysis (glycogen breakdown for glucose) triglyceride lipolysis for glucose
221
how are renein and aldosterone related
They are proportional | the more renin secretion results in more aldosterone secretion
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Process of defecation and nervous system
``` Feces enters rectum stretch receptors activate signals sent to CNS s2-s4 parasympathetic nerve impulses are sent back (pelvic) smooth muscles relax in sphincter recto angle straightens out peristalsis forces feces out ```
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What is cushings
Too much cortisol ``` hyperglycemia muscle wasting weakness obesity moon face hypertension ```
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Precursor to testosterone
Cholesterol
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Most potent female hormone
estradiol
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Short term stress response
Hypothalamus HR increase BP increase glycogenolysis (glycogen breakdown for glucose) metabolic rate increases
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What is ammonias role in liver
Ammonia, derived from protein and nucleic acid catabolism, plays a pivotal role in nitrogen metabolism, and is needed in the biosynthesis of nonessential amino acids and nucleic acids.
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Which of the following will stimulate bile acid secretion by primary hepatocytes? A. Fat in the duodenum B. Gastric distension C. Malabsorption of lipids by the ileum D. Secretin
A. Fat in the duodenum
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What do you need to begin with toe get Epi
Tyrosine
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3 structures of defecation
Internal anal sphincter external anal sphincter pelvic diaphragm
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What kind of disorder is it in the hypothalamus
Tertiary disorder
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What class are epi and nor epi
Catchecholemines come from chromaffin cells
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3. Insulin deficiency will cause A. decreased hepatic glycogenolysis. B. decreased hepatic glycogenesis. C. decreased hepatic gluconeogenesis.
B. decreased hepatic glycogenesis.
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What stimulates the release of pancreatic enzymes
Calcium released from intracellular stores Works through secondary messenger system (Ca+, cAMP)
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Is glucagon anabolic or catabolic
catabolic
236
What stimulates bile production
Bile is prodcued in the liver It is stimulated by parasympathetic impulses from the vagus
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Liver regeneration
The liver is the only organ capable of regenerating ist own tissue Can fully regenerate with as little as 25% Hepatocytes make this possible due to mitosis
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What are inhibitory precursor hormones from hypothalamus
Dopamine | somatostatin
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What is emulsification
Emulsifies or breaks down lipids into smaller parts or droplets The lipases can then act on those smaller droplets
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What is gastrin
GI hormone Comes from G cells (stomach) Increases stomach motility and H+ secretion Stimulus is distention of stomach, vagus nerve or AA in stomach
241
2 segments of small intestine motility
propulsion | receiving
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What are slow waves
They are smooth muscle oscillations Must have spike potentials to push it past the threshold Once at threshold, mucle contraction occurs No slow waves in esophagus
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What is first pass emtabolism
muspass through thte portal venous system and the liver before entering the systemic circulation
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3 phases of gastric stimulation
cephalic gastric intestinal
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What is a lack of contraction called in small intestine
physiological ileus
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What does porinsulin become
Insulin and c peptide
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What are 3 types of relaxation of stomach as food enters
Receptive Adaptive Feedback
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up regulation
cells increase their receptors for a stronger response
249
What kind of disorder is it in the endocrine gland
Primary disorder
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How does vitmain D increase calcium levels
The liver and kidneys convert vitamin D to the active hormone 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol. Also need UV light to convert Vitamin D This hormone stimulates intestinal calcium absorption .
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3 phases of esophageal motility
``` Oral phase (voluntary) Pharyngeal phase (involuntary) Esophageal phase (involuntary) ```
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Fat soluble vitamins stored in liver
A, D, E, K
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Corpus spongiosum
one column that surrounds the urethra
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What is emission
sperm moves into the urethra | bladder sphincter closes
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what kind of receptors are on parietal cells
Histamine receptors | H2
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What stimulates the secretion of CCK
Fatty acids and amino acids in chyme entering the duodenum stimulate secretion of CCK.
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Glucose to glycogen is called
Glycogenesis
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Phases of gastric stimulation | gastric
Gastric (feed forward) Stimulus = Stomach distention Local reflexes and vasovagal reflexes → parietal cells → G cells Histamine and gastrin stimulate acid production
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Kufpper cell function
Production of bilirubin | macrophages of liver
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What is stress hormone
Cortisol
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Blocking H2 histamine receptors in the stomach reduces gastric acid secretion during the cephalic phase of digestion because histamine: A. directly stimulates pepsin secretion. B. potentiates the actions of secretin in the stomach. C. potentiates the acid-stimulating action of vagal stimulation on the stomach. D. mimics the actions of Cholecystokinin (CCK).
C. potentiates the acid-stimulating action of vagal stimulation on the stomach.
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Which bone cells are more active if there is a drop in blood calcium
Osteoclasts | breaks down bone to release more calcium into blood
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What is the process of bilirubin breakdown and excretion
o Bilirubin is a byproduct of hemoglobin metabolism o Macrophages break it down into biliverdin (green color) o Biliverdin reductase converts biliverdin into bilirubin (yellow color) o Bilirubin leaves the macrophage now called unconjugated bilirubin o Albumin in blood binds unconjugated bilirubin and transports to hepatocytes. o Hepatocytes convert it to conjugated bilirubin. o This makes bilirubin more soluble so can it be secreted into bile o In intestines, bacteria hydrolyze bilirubin into colorless urobilinogen. o Normal urine contains urobilinogen. o Most of the urobilinogen, becomes oxidized by gut bacteria to form stercobilin. o Stercobilin is what makes feces brown in color. o enterohepatic circulation Is another way bilirubin and bile acids get recycled
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Hormone defenition
secreted into blood stream (endocrine) distant target cell some also do cell to cell communication and diffusionin intersitual fluid Hormones initiate a cell response by binding to specific receptors.
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Goal of digestion
absorption
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What does CCK do
CCK causes the contraction of the gall bladder whcih causes the release of bile as well as the relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi
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Liver cell types
``` Hepatocytes Kupffer cells Choliangiocytes Sinusoidal epithelial cells (SEC) Stellate cells (Ito cells) ```
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What is key organ in carbohydrate metabolism
Liver
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What do delta cells do
in the islets of langerhans of pancreas produce somatostatin
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5 steps to making tyroid hormone
Iodide trapping Thyroglobulin is synthesized & secreted Iodination and conjugation (T3/T4 created) Endocytocis of thyroid colloid Secretion by exocytosis (T3/T4 secreted into blood) 90% T4, 10% T3,
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Spermatogenesis
``` 1 - Germ cell 1 - spermatagonium 2 - spermatagonia 1 - primary spermatocyte 2 - secondary spermatocytes (2 per) 4 - spermatids (1 each) 4 - mature spermatozoa ```
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Where does B12 come from
Vitamin B12 comes from eggs, liver animal products (cobalamins)
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Define endocrine hormone
hormone that enters the blood stream
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Describe Serosa
outer layer connective tissue Areolar tissue Mesothelium Reduces friction with other structures
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Describe insulin in the liver
It is anabolic Takes glucose and builds it into glycogen regulates glycogenesis
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Vitamin D
Builds strong bones and teeth
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Cells of Gastric secretion | Mucous neck cells
Secrete mucin in an acidic fluid
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What exerts control over CA2+ and phosphate homeostasis
PTH | Parathyroid hormone
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Vitamin A
Healthy skin, mucous membranes, prevents night blindness, Promotes growth
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How is water absorbed in the gut
osmosis GI tract is extremely efficient in absorbing H2O o Lots of water added, (i.e. 8900ml) o lots of water then reabsorbed (i.e. 8900ml), o small amount lost in feces (i.e. 100ml)
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3 main salivary glands
submandibular sublingual parotid
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Testosterone potency
DHT Testosterone Androstenedione DHEA
283
What is CCK
Cholecystokinin GI hormone comes form I cells in duodenum works on all GI organs increases gastric secretion, contraction inhibits gastric emptying
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Where is bile produced
The liver In hepatocytes
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3 classes of hormones
amine based peptide based Steroids
286
What is a lacteal
Lymphatic capillary
287
Describe ingestion in the 5 stages of digestion
selective food intake
288
Where do gall stones occur
Can occur anywhere in biliary tree Can cause pancreatitis and jaundice
289
Number of oocytes in female by age
birth - 1 million puberty - 200,000 30 - 25,000 menopause - 0
290
What are pancreatic secretions rich in?
Bicarbonate ions Happens through bicarbonate anhydrase reaction
291
PTH calcium feed back
decrease in blood calcium induces the secretion of parthyroid hormone PTH goes into blood stream ``` PTH causes bone to release CA2+, the kidneys to conserve and keep CA2+ Kidneys to activate Vitamin D Vitmamin D causes Intestines to absorb more CA2+ CA2+ increases PTH secretion is inhibited ```
292
How are carbohydrates digested and absorbed
Starts in mouth with saliva Then pancreatic juices Brush borders enzymes break the sugars down to simple sugars Simple sugars go across brush border of small intestine Then absorbed into blood
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Where does bile origante
Bile canaliculus
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What stimulates glucagon
Hypoglycemia AA ACh Nor epi epi
295
Where is bile stored
the gallbladder
296
Pancreas enzymes | Endocrine vs exocrine
Has both endocrine (insulin) exocrine (digestive enzymes) functions
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Describe Sympathetic salivation
Sympathetic salivation Rich in mucous Reduced salivation
298
What stimulate prolactin porduciton
Dopamine
299
Intersitutal cells of cajal
pacemaker cells of GI tract generate slow waves
300
Immune functions of liver cells
Ideal site for the clearance of blood-borne antigens and pathogens. Hepatocytes, SECs, Kupper cells act as APCs Stellate cells release interferons and cytokines
301
Other ways gluconeogenesis can occur
Through lactate fats amino acids
302
What inhibits glucagon
Fatty acids somatostatin insulin
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What do T3 and T4 do
Regulate metabolism T3 is more physiologically active ``` T3 affects transcription increases metabolic rate increases Na+ / K+ pump increases Beta adrenergic receptors ```
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Migrating motor complex (MMC)
Bouts of contraction occur 2-3 hours after meal used to flush the system occurs about every 90 minutes between meals intervals of strong then propulsive contractions Under the influence of hormone motilin
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salivon structure
All connected Acinus intercalated duct striated duct excretory duct
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How are PTH, Vitamin D, and calcium related
Parathyroid hormone and vitamin D are required for calcium absorption PTH activates vitamin D, makes gut more permeable to calcium PTH = more calcium absorption
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Vitamin K
Helps blood clotting
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What must happen for nutrient absorption to occur
Nutrient absorption does not occur without contacting the microvilli brush border
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What cells secrete CCK and secretin
I cells or enteroendocrine cells
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What does AVP (ADH) do
Humoral stimulus increases reabsorption of water by kidneys
311
What is bilirubin
Bilirubin is a waste product of hemoglobin breakdown | It is the end product of hemoglobin degradation
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How do the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems effect the enteric nervous system
PNS stimulates (rest/digest) SNS inhibits (fight/flight)
313
where are sperm stored and matured
epidiymis
314
major secondary messengers
``` cAMP IP3/DAG Eicosanoids Guanylyl cylase Tyrosine kinase ```
315
Define autocrine hormone
Horomne that is secreted and works on itself
316
What color is corpus luteum
yellow
317
What does the adrenal cortex do
Synthesizes and secrets steroid hormones Highly vascular secretes on demand, not stored
318
What happens in stomach as food enters
Stomach relaxes
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Folliculogenesis
production and maturation of follicle
320
What do theca cells do
LH binds to these cells produce testosterone and is then sent to granulosa cell where it is converted into estradiol (FSH helps)
321
How do gall stones form
When cholesterol becomes too saturated Can cause pancreatitis and jaundice
322
Things that effect drug metabolism in liver
```  Age  Nutrition  Genetics  Sex  Hormones ```
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What role does liver play in iron tranpsort, storage, and metabolism
Kupffer cells breakdown damaged red blood cells through phagocytosis Iron released from heme becomes part of free iron pool in blood Transferrin is the molecule that can move iron through the blood Must be ferrous iron Fe2+
324
What is the precursor molecule for all of the hormones and steroids of the adrenal cortex ie. aldosterone, cortisol, DHEA
Cholesterol Secondary messenger system (cAMP) Star proteins move cholesterol into the mitochondria
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What is atresia
follicles do not continue to develop
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Hormones from the posterior pituitary
ADH | Oxytocin
327
Hormones form anterior pituitary
FLAT GP ``` FSH LH ACTH TSH GH Prolactin ``` ALl are tropic from hypothalamus
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What is the role of the parasympathetic nerve activity after a meal
It stimulates GI secretion and motility, which also indirectly increases splanchnic blood flow as a result of increased local metabolism (increase blood flow, parasympathetic, rest/digest)
329
What causes intestinal fluid hyper secretion
Toxins and other luminal stimuli
330
Transporter to bring glucose into liver
GLUT 2 facilitated transporter
331
4 layers of digestive system
Mucosa (inner layer) Submucosa (connective tissue) Muscularis externa (smooth muscle layer) Serosa (outer layer)
332
What are fatty acids used for
Citric acid cycle
333
How are gametes transported within the female genital tract
Cilia and smooth muscle
334
how long is egg viable after ovulation
24 hours
335
how long is sperm viable for after ejaculation
48 hours
336
How long is fertilization window
2 days
337
fertilization process
sperm passes follicular cells (binds) Acrosomal reaction occurs acrosomal enzyme breaks down zona pellucida sperm penetrates causes rise in Ca2+ (cortical rxn) this blocks off any other sperm from entering this also triggers 2nd meiosis division male sperm head then enlarges and fuses with female nucleus
338
Process of implantation
``` zygote (fertilized egg) 4 cell stage (day 2) morula (day 3) (16 cells) early blastocyte (day 4) Implanting blastocyte (day 7) ```
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Amnion
Transparent sac filled with amniotic fluid
340
What is chorion
fetal portion of placenta Encloses the embrionic body provides gas and nutrient exchange
341
Yolk sac
forms part of digestive tube | earliest blood vessels
342
Allantois
small outpocket on yolk sac umbilical cord urinary bladder
343
intervillous space
acts like a big capillary | gas exchange
344
When does the placenta assume produciton of progesterone
week 9
345
What saves the corpus luteum from being brokendown
the early production of HCG in embryo
346
When is HCG detectable
Dectectable in urine 8-9 days after conception
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What is hCS
human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS) hCS is the primary hormone in pregnancy that induces a state of insulin resistance in the mother Causes gestational diabetes
348
Parturition
Process of delivery
349
Lactation
sucking inhibits GnRH which suppresses FSH and LH also suppresses the menstrual cycle (while breast feeding)
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When does menstruation resume after breast feeding
Usually resume menstrual cycles about 2 months after giving end of breast-feeding.
351
Importatn hormones of birth delivery
Estrogen induces oxytocin Oxytocin stimulates contractions and production of prostoglandins Prostoglandins help to soften the cervix

PAM Semester 1 (16 decks)

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