poj Flashcards
(137 cards)
1
Q
Define experimental method
A
Involves the manipulation of an independent variable to have an effect on the dependent variable which is measured and started in results
2
Q
Diff between directional and non directional hypothesis
A
A directional hypothesis states the direction of the impact of dependent variable on the independent variable where as non directional does not state the direction of the relationship between the DV and IV
3
Q
Difference between independent variable and dependent variable
A
IV is the variable that is manipulated to observe its effect on the DV whereas the Dv is the variable that’s being measured and is affected by the IV.
4
Q
What’s operationalism
A
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured eg social anxiety defined in terms of avoiding crowded place and physical anxiety
5
Q
What’s an aim and hypotheses
A
Aim is a general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, the purpose of the study
Hypothesis is a clear precise statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated .”stated at outset of any study
6
Q
What are examples of words found in directional hypothesis
A
Higher and lower
Faster and slower
7
Q
When do we tend to use a directional hypothesis
A
When the findings of previous research studies suggest a particular outcome
8
Q
When writing a hypothesis what do you need to renter
A
- What are the IV and the DV?
- How is the IV manipulated e.g. what are the levels of the IV
- How has the DV been measured exactly? E.g. how has it been operationalised?
- Should the hypothesis be one tailed or two tailed?
9
Q
What are the levels on of IV
A
If ab experiment compared the experimental treatment with control treatment then the IV has two levels, control and experimental
10
Q
How can memory, physical aggression and intelligence be operationalised
A
Memory-recall test
Physical aggression-identifying indicators of the behaviour and eg counting them
Intelligence-quiz
11
Q
Give two outcomes where non directional hypothesis has to be used
A
Limited previous research or previous research did not come to a conclusion
12
Q
What’s an extraneous variable and a confounding variable
A
Any variable other than IV that may have an effect on the DV if it isn’t controlled. Don’t carry systemically w IV
Confounding -any variable other than IV may of affected the DV so we don’t know true source of change to DV.These vary systemically with the IV
13
Q
What’s demand characteristics and investigator effects
A
Demand characteristics - Any clues from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted to participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation.
This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour within the research situation.
Investigator effects - Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (the DV). This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction with, participants during the research process.
14
Q
What’s randomisation and standardisation
A
Randomisation - The use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions.
Standardisation - Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.
15
Q
What can we do to minimise extraneous and confusing variables
A
Standardisation and randomisation
16
Q
Why it’s important to control demand characteristics and investigator effects
A
To avoid bias and keep internal and external validity
To avoid bias, draw valid conclusions, establish causal relationships,
17
Q
Why can randomisation be used in psychological research
A
Reduce bias (equal chance of being assigned)
Strengthen internal validity(no systematic differences between participants)
Decrease systematic errors
18
Q
What’s experimental design
A
The different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in response to the experimental conditions
19
Q
What’s independent groups design
A
Participants allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition so if there are two groups they w only experience one level of IV
20
Q
What’s repeated measures
A
All pots take part in all conditions of the experiment
21
Q
Limitation of repeated measures and what design could combat this
A
When ppts are tested more than once and experience all conditions of the experiment they’re more likely to become more wise to the aims of the study
Matched pairs
22
Q
What’s matched pairs design
A
Pairs of ppts are first matched on some variables that may affect the dv. Then one member of the pair is assigned to condition A and the other to condition B.
23
Q
When is random allocation usually used when it comes to independent design
A
To deal with individual differences(ppt variables) in independent design as in both conditions the ppts aren’t the same
24
Q
Whats a strength of independent design
What’s a weaknesss of independent design
A
It’s less economical than repeated as in the two diff conditions the ppts are different so they have to get 2 sets of ppts to produce the same results.
Order effects aren’t a problem where they are for repeated.ppts less likely to guess the aims
25
Strength and weakness of repeated measures
Weakness:Each ppt has to do it twice so the order in which condition they do first matters ie order effects could occur. This could cause fatigue or boredom causing deterioration of task. Ppts may also improve ability/know aim of study when repeating conditions order acts as a confounding variable and demand characteristics could occur
Strength:ppt variables are controlled and less ppts needed so more economical
26
What is a solution to the problem of order effects caused by a repeated measures design
Counterbalancing. This is when half of the ppts are made to do conditions in one order and the other half in the opposite order,eliminating order effects aren't
27
Evaluate matched pairs
Less order effects and demand characteristics as ppts only participate in one condition.
Ppts can never be allocated exactly there w always be differences between them which could affect the dv
It’s less economical too as it’s more time consuming and expensive esp if there’s a pretest
28
What’s one way random allocation could be carried out
Randomisation
29
What are the four types of experiments and explain them
Laboratory-An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables
Field-an experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effects on the DV
Natural-an experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there.researcher records the effect on the dv
Quasi - a study where the IV has not been determined by anyone- the variables simply exist such as being old or young.Not an experiment
30
What’s the strengths and limitations of labatory experiments
It’s always in highly controlled environments so they have high control of extraneous variables. So any effect on dv is due to manipulation of the IV. Increasing internal validity
it’s easily replicable as there’s a high level of control. We need to replicate to check if findings valid and not one off and it ensures extraneous variables aren’t introduced when repeating
They lack generisablity. The lab experiment may be more artificial and not real life like so low external validity and mundane realism. In a lab as well the ppts may act unusual so behaviour can’t be generalised beyond research setting.
31
Strength and limitations of field experiments
Higher mundane realism because environments more natural. Field experiments may produce behaviour that’s more valid and authentic as ppts are unaware they’re being studies so high external validity.
Loss of control of extraneous variables so cause and effect between in and dv harder to establish and may not be replicable. Ethically ppts don’t know they’re being studied and they need to give consent so it could be an invasion of privacy.
32
What’s natural experiment
When the researcher takes advantage of an IV that was already there (hence why it natural). Researcher records the effect of IV on the Dv
33
What are strengths and limitations of natural experiments
higher external validity as it involves real life issues and problems as they happen.
Allow researchers to study variables that would be unethical or impractical to manipulate in an experiment.
Natural event happens rarely limits research opportunities.
Ppts may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions so may not be too sure whether IV affected DV
34
Strength and weakness of quasi
Carried out under controlled conditions so share same strengths as lab experiment
Can’t randomly allocated ppts to conditions so there may be confounding variables
35
Which type of experiment is each a)Measuring the change in stress levels in the local residents of a town following a zombie invasion.
b) Comparing the performance of a group of 20 humans and a group of 20 zombies on a video game that requires divided attention and multi-tasking.
c)
Measuring the physiological response of zombies to a range of stimuli including bright light, loud noise and mild electric shocks.
d) Recording the number of people who refuse to enter a lift when one zombie is in there compared to when there are three zombies in there.
A-field
B-natural
C-lab
D- quasi
36
Why can natural and quasi not be true experiments
They lack researcher control so can’t manipulate the IV and no random allocation so pre existing differences could occur which could affect the dv
37
Differnece between field and natural experiment
In field researcher activities manipulated IV in real work setting and has a mildly high level of control. In natural the IV occurs naturally researcher doesn’t manipulate it and uses it to advantage instead
38
Define population and sample
Population- a group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest from which a smaller sample is drawn
Population - A group of people who are the focus of the researcher's interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn.
Sample - A group of people who take part in a research investigation. The sample is drawn from a (target) population and is presumed to be representative of that population, i.e. it stands 'fairly' for the population being studied.
39
Define sampling techniques bias and generalisation
Sampling techniques - The method used to select people from the population.
Bias - In the context of sampling, when certain groups may be over or under-represented within the sample selected. For instance, there may be too many younger people or too many people of one ethnic origin in a sample. This limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population.
Generalisation - The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is made possible if the sample of participants is representative of the population.
40
What do you need to consider when getting a sample
That it’s representative of the target population to increase generalisation of findings is possible.a sampling tehcnzique is used to acquire this
41
Different types of sampling techniques and explain them
Random sampling- where all the members of target population have an equal chance of being selected
To do it, get a list of all the members of TP.Assign them a number. Sample them generated from lottery method
Systematic- when every nth member of the target population is selected. To do it a sampling frame is used where the list of target population is put into alphabetical. Sampling system nominated (like every 3rd,6th person) or it can be determined randomly to reduce bias.
Stratified sampling-this is when composition of sample reflects the proportions of ppl in sub group within target population.to do it, first identify the strata that make up that TP. Then the proposition needed for scanners to be representative are worked out.Ppts that make up stratum selected using random sampling
Opportunity-selecting anyones who’s willing to participate,simply asks whoever’s around at time of study
Volunteering-ppts selecting themselves to be apart of sample. First could be advertised or just ask n answer
42
Strengths and weaknesses of random sampling
Free from researcher bias-no influences and won’t pick ppl who will support their hypothesis
Difficult to get a. Complete list of TP and time consuming.May still not be representative(could pick like 20 girls n 1 lad) selected ppts may also refuse to take part
43
Strengths and weakness of systematic and stratified
Systematic - avoids researcher bias so no influence.
Fairly representative
Could be time consuming to put it in alphabetical and to get list of ppts
Stratified- avoids researcher bias.Representative as it accurately reflects composition of population.Generalistaion of population becomes possible
Strata may not reflect TP entirely so complete representation not possible
44
Strength and weakness of opportunity and volunteer
Strength-convenient.Less time consuming and less economical
It can form two forms of bias.Sample is unrepresentative of TP and not generalised to it.Usually ppl pick students who do psychology which can be biased
Secondly, researcher has complete control and may avoid ppl
Volunteer
Strength- minimal input from researcher and less time consuming
Volunteer bias could occur as it may attract a certain profile of ppl which may affect how findings are generalised
45
Explain one reason why is may be difficult to generalise from a volunteer sampling
It may attract a certain profile of ppl who is keen and curious which isn’t representative
46
What’s ethical issues and the BPS code of ethics
Ethical issues- these arise when a conflict exists between rights of ppts in research studies and goals of research to make authentic valid results
BPS code- a quasi legal document produced by the British psychological society instructs psychology’s about what is acceptable and what isn’t .
47
What are the ethical issues and explain them
Debriefing - mandatory to tell ppts about the aim and results of study and what theylle do with data ans confidentiality
Rights of withdrawal-ppts should be assured they can withdraw at any point and when they do their data must be destoryed they should have.
Informed consent- making ppts aware of aims of research,procedures rights and data use. They shouldn’t be obliged or coerced when making choice to do it.
Deception-purposefully misleading or withholding info from ppts at any stage of investigation. Sometimes it’s pardoned when they’ve been given informed consent but have to hide another section of study
Protection from harm-shouldn’t be in anymore risk than in their daily lives
Confidentiality-right of privacy and right to control info about themselves and refers to law
48
What do eithical committees use to determine whether particular research proposals and ethically acceptable and explain what it is
Cost benefit analysis- when committee weighs up cost and benefits of the study taking place.Befits could be groundbreaking research costs could be damaging effect on ppts or psychology as a whole
49
Ways of dealing with ethical issues
Informed consent-ppts sent a consent letter/form with all relevant info. Agreed and signed. If under 16 parental consent needed.alternatives could be asking a diff group of ppl somewhat similar if they agree if they do we assume ogs will-presumptive.
Prior general -ppts giving consent to be in a number of studies and to b decieved
Retrospective-ppts asked for consent in debriefing(subject to deception)
Debriefing- ensure ppts are mentally fine after if not provide counselling and assure them the behaviour was normal, tell em three have right to withdraw and let em know about other stuff they didn’t know like other groups
Confidentiality-data has to be kept protected but usually the names are initials to keep anonymity
50
What’s a pilot study
A small version of an investigation that rages place before real one. Done to check procedures, materials, measuring scales, to making changes if necessary. Helps save time and money
51
What’s a single blind procedure and double blind abs what are these trials usually for and what’s the experimental group and control group in it
When researcher knows aim of study but ppts don’t
Researcher and ppts don’t know aim, third party usually does
Drug trials-to test placebos
Control - who gets the placebo, experimental who gets the real drug
52
What’s a control group used for
Purpose of comparison with experimental group,if change in behaviour for experimental group very different to Control then we can conclude effect is IV
53
What are the different types of observation
Naturalistic observation - Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally
occur.
Controlled observation - Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment, i.e. one where some variables are managed.
Covert observation - Participants' behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent.
Overt observation - Participants' behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent.
Participant observation - The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.
Non-participant observation - The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.
54
Strength and weakness of naturalistic and controlled
Naturalistic- high external validity so findings generalised to everydaylife
Lack of control over research makes replication difficult though and there could be uncontrolled extraneous variables that make it hard to judge any pattern of behaviour.
Controlled-may produce findings that can’t be generalised to real life findings.
replications easier tho because extraneous variables less of a factor.
55
Strength and weakness of overt and cover observation
Covert-ppts not knowing they’re being watched reduces ppt reactivity,increases validity of data gathered
Invades privacy
Overt- more ethically acceptable but may act different because they’re being watched
56
Strength and weakness of participants and non participant observation
In participants observation -researcher can experience obsv too increasing insight,this increases validity of the findings.
Researcher may become too familar w ppts and lose objectivity
Non participants- allows researcher to keep more of a distance so they don’t go native
Might lose valuable insight to be gained in a ppt observation as they are too far from ppl n behaviour theyre studying
57
Use of naturalistic research in studies
Used to study behaviour without interference and in diff professions,to collect data and tracking progress, it’s useful when it’s too expensive or unrealistic to conduct it in a lab atmosphere
58
what’s the issues in design of observation
Unstructured-researcher likes to observe everything they see, rich in detail, method is good when it’s few opts and and it’s a small study.But there may be too much going to record.
Structured observation - quantify observations using a predetermined list of behaviours and sampling methods which makes it easier to record
59
In odder to produced a structured observation what do you need to break down
Behaviour into behaviour categories. Should be measurable observable and precisely defined.
Researcher must consider before observing all the ways the categories fall into the target behaviour
60
What’s the systematic way of sampling and evaluate it
Event sampling-counting number of times a particular behaviour occurs in a target individual/group. Strength-useful if behaviour occurs infrequently and could be missed if time was used.If it’s too complex it may be overlooked important details
Time sampling -recording behaviour working a preestablished time frame(every 30s ie). It reduces number of observations being made. When behaviour is sampled it may be unrepresentative of observation as a whole.
61
What’s used to assess dv
Observational techniques
62
To make data recording less biased and accurate what should researchers do
Incorporate someone else so no details are missed. Data recorded between both had to be consistent and somewhat similar so they have to be trained interobserved reliability
Observe the categories being used, observe at same time maybe in pilot study compare data and differences, analyse data by correlating each pair of observations made and overall figure used
63
What are the different types of self report techniques
Questionairres and interviews
Questionnaires -preset list of words to be completed. Done to asses thoughts and feelings . Could be used to assess the DV
It can be divided into open questions and closed questions. Open-no fixed amount of answers they can answer however they want, more qualitative and detailed
closed-fixed number of responses. Could be short qualitative and normally quantitative
Interviews-can be online and face to face. Split into structured and unstructured.
Structured-predetermined set of questions in order, like a questionnaire but face to face or on call.
Unstructured-more conversational. General aim is discussed but it’s more free flowing and interviewee should expand their answers too
Semi structured interviews have a set order of questions to ask but interviewers can ask follow up questions if they wanna
64
Strengths and weakness of questionnaires
Questionnaires- strengths
Cost effective, can gather large amounts of data as distributed to bare ppl.Less effort and ppt doesn’t have to be present qualitative- rich in detail but harder to analyse
Quantitative -less time consuming and easy to analyse but lacks detail
Weakness- answers may not be truthful. Either want to rush it -response bias or present themselves in a positive light-social desirability bias.
65
Strength and weakness of interviews
- structured interviews- are straightforward to replicate due to standardised format and reduces difference between interviewed
But you can’t deviate from topic or elaborate on topics which is frustrating
Unstructured- more flexibility,can as k follow up questions to gain more insight.
But analaysis isn’t straightforward,drawing firm conclusions could be hard.they could also lie for social desirability.
66
Use of interviews in psychological research
To understand why ppl act they way they do and this data is analysed into the research study
67
What are the different types of closed question designs ppts could be asked
Likert- scale-asked based on their agreement
Rating scale-asked based on their strength of feeling
Fixed choice option-lost of options and ppts can choose which apply
68
When designing an interview what do you have to consider?
Interview schedule-list of questions to consider,should be standardised for each ppt so no interviewer bias.usually one to one unless clinical setting where it could be group. Should be quiet room and neutral questions to establish rapport.
69
What do you consider when writing questions
Overuse of jargon- confusing and it’s unnecessary complex
Emotive language should be avoided to avoid bias or offense.
Avoid double barrelled questions where they half agree to disagree.It could be hard to decipher
70
What is correlation and what are the different types.
A technique where researcher investigates association between covariables.
Positive correlation - where they both coordinate and rise
Negative correlation-where one variable rises other falls.
Zero correlation-no relationship between covariables.
71
Why are covariables not seen as iv and dv
Because the researcher isn’t tryna figure out cause and effect relationship it’s just looking for association between variables
72
What’s the difference between experiment and correlation
In an experiment- researcher manipulated the iv to measure effect on dv. So iv caused any changes in the dv
In a correlation-no manipulation of one variable so not possible to establish cause and effect between one covariable and another.
73
What’s the variable in a correlation called that isn’t to do with the covariables
Intervening variables
74
Evaluate the use of correlations
Strengths- precise and quantifiable measure of how two variables are related.
-If they’re strongly related it could suggest ideas for future research. Used as a starting point to assess patterns between variables before starting an experimental study
-Quick n economical (no controlled environment needed and no manipulation of iv)
-Secondary research used
Weakness
Limitation-lack of manipulation of control means it can only show us how variables are related and not why.
-Doesn’t show cause and effect so we don’t know which variable is causing other to change
An intervening variable could be the link between the two variables making it a third variable problem
-Correlations could be misinterpreted too when an intervening variable is missed eg single parent families raise more criminals but children could grow w more hardships (intv v) causing em to do crime
75
What are covariables
The two variables investigated within a correlation
76
When obtaining metaanalysis what are the two ways of getting it and give s and w
Primary data-data collected first hand-questionnaire interview observation etc
Strength-authentic and specific
Weakness-more effort and time consuming n could be costly
Secondary-data collected by someone else/alr exists. Usually the significance of the research found through this method is already known-websites,articles books
Strength-cheap and minimal effort
Weakness- Less quality and accuracy of info, not entirely specific, outdated and incomplete
77
What is meta analysis
Study where research methods are combined and its research about research . They may do qualitative analysis and discuss conclusions and then do quantitative analysis and try to calculate effect size(dv) which helps give link between variables across multiple studiea
78
Pros and cons of a meta analysis
Allows us to view data w more confidence and result scan be generalised across larger populations
Prone to publication bias.research may not pick all relevant studies,leaving out studies w negative and irrelavent results. So data from META will be biased as it only represents some of the data
79
what are measures of central tendency and how do u calculate each one
averages that give us the most typical values in data.
This could be mean median mode.
MEAN-add it all up and divide by n. s-It includes all of the values the data set so its more representative of the data as whole. w- easily distorted by anomalous values. MEDIAN=middle value from scores arranged L to H.S-easy to calculate and anomalous have no effect. w-less sensitive than mean a not all values included.
MODE-most frequent value in data it aslo may be bimodal
s-easy to calculate
w-not really representative of data as a whole
80
what are measures of dispersion and explain and evaluate the diff types
MOD-how far scores and varied and differed.
Range-Highest - Lowest and adding 1
S- easy to calculate
w- may not be representative of the general spread of scores and innacurate.
Standard deviation-its more sophiscated as its a single value that tells us how far score deviate the mean. S-more precise as it includes all the values.Weakness-it can be distorted by a single value
81
why do we usually add 1 in the range
to account for the margin of error
82
what does having a high standard deviation mean and having a low standard deviation.
The greater the SD the greater the spread of data. This would mean all ppts wouldnt be affected by IV as data is widely spread so there could be anomolous results. The lower the standard deviation the more the data's clustered around the mean so showing all ppts responded n a similar way.
83
what are the symmbols for
equal to
less than
much less than
much greater than
proportional to
approximatkey equal
=
<
>
<<
>>
∝
~
84
whats the accepted level of probability and what does it mean
p<0.05 5% chance results occured and there's no diff in population.0.95% chance that results occured and there was a difference(that iv was acc affecting dv)
85
when drawing graphs what should you remember
title
axes
correct plotting
correct choice of scale
86
why do we do a statistical test
to see whether the data we calculated occured by chance and to determine whether our test is significant
87
whats a specific statistical test we can use to determine whether thhe difference is signigfiacnt and when do we use it
sign test
when were looking for difference than association
need to have a repeated measures design
nominal data(organised into categories)
88
how does the accepted proabability and hypotheses link tg
the number is 0.05.This is the level the researcher decides to accept the research hypotheses.If its accepted it means its less than 0.05 and researcher say results occured due to manipulation of iv.
89
when researchers wanna be VEEEERRYYY confident that their results were not due to chance what do they do
lower the significance level to 0.01.Usually when there's more at cost like humans(drugs or a onetime experiment)
90
how do you get the establish how significance is shown
when statistical test is done you get the calculated value. This needs to be compared with the critical. which is done by looking at the table
Then the calculated value has to be equal to or lower than critical value for results to be regarded as significant.
91
loo at ur phone for worked example
92
whats peer review and whats the aims of it
peer review-the assessment of work by others in the same specialised field that intended for publication to make sure its high quality. Main aims
-to allocate research funding,could be gov funded who wanna make sure its worth it.
-to validate the quality and relevance of research (things to be checked:formulation of hypotheses,the method chosen,the tests used and concusions drawn)
-to suggest amendments or improvements.
93
weaknesses of peer review
-we usually use anonymity for peer review but some people may use that to critisize ppl they dont like.this increases competition for funding.
-Journal editors could be selective in what they publish presenting them in a good light which could create inauthenticity in psychology.
-established scientists are the ones chosen as reviewers by jouraist.so new and current opinions are ignored slowing down rate of change within a particular scientific discipline.
94
what is a case study and what are the strengths and weaknesses
detailed study into the life of a person which looks at their background current and past behaviours building up a case history.eg case study of HM and little hans
strengths-detailed so depth insight
forms basis for future research
you can infer usual behaviour after reviewing unusual cases
permits investigations that are unethical and impractical
Limitations-not generalisable to wider populations
time consuming and difficult to analyse
interviewer biases could be presented
95
What’s content analysis and how to conduct it
Involves studying human behaviour indirectly by studying things that we produce.doesnt use data directly researcher turns qualitative data into quantitative n u could do it on speeches interviews, books
To conduct one:
-Identify hypotheses you will investigate/formulate research q
-Creating a coding system on what ur investigating
(get other preexisting qualitative data sources (some conducted by u some conducted by other researchers)
decide on the coding of the categories/coding units e.g. the use of the terms 'sweetie', 'honey', 'darling' throughout the material
The researcher works through data using a tally e.g. no of time coding unit said
then need to test for reliability via:
Test-retest reliability: Run the content analysis again on the same sample and compare the results
Inter-rater reliability: A second rater conducts the content analysis with the same coding categories and data and compares them
If the results are similar then this good inter-rater reliability
-Gather resources
-record data in table
-Analyse data which is descriptive and qualitative eg using thematic analysis(allows themes,patterns,trends to emergee in data)
-write up a report in format of scientific report
96
What’s the strengths and weakness of content analysis
Strengths-strong external validity as data alr in real work so higher mundane realism.
Produces large data set of both quantitative and qualitative data that’s easy to analyse.
Easy replication
Ethical issues like privacy avoided as data alr in public domain
Weakness-observer bias presented but can be eliminated by achieving inter observer reliability.
-content of choice to analyse can be biased
-interpretative bias(observer will ignore some things but pay extra attention to others.
97
What are the levels of measurement
Nominal-data in form of categories.discrete as there’s only one item and it doesn’t enable.
Ordinal-data represented in ranking form. No equal intervals and unfo it lacks precison based on subjective opinion on people.
Interval-type of data based on numerical scales including equal units of precisely defined size. Most sophisticated as it’s based on objective measures and also it needs a parametric test x
98
Measures of dispersion for the r levels of data and measures of central tendency
Nominal-mode-n/a
Ordinal-median-range
Interval-mean-standard deviation
99
When choosing an inferential statistics test what do you have to think about
Design of study-is it an unrelated design which is of the IV group design or is it a related design which is of repeated measures and matched pair experimental design
Levels of study-(ordinal,nominal…
Difference or correlation
100
What statistical tests do you have to use in diff situations
nominal data= if its test of difference
unrelated=chi square related=sign
ordinal data= if its test of difference
unrelated=man Whitney related=wilcoxin
interval data= if its test of difference
unrelated=UNR t test related=REL t test
nominal data-test of assoication=chi square
ordinal data-test of assoication=spearmans rho
interval data-test of assoication=pearsons r
101
Rule of R
If there’s an R in name of statistical tests then CV has to be greater than critical value for result to be significant. So null hypothesis can be rejected and alternative hypothesis is supported . No r then calculated value has to be lower
102
When researchers conduct inferential statistical tests what errors could they make
Type 1-if incorrect rejection of null hypothesis is true(researcher found sig diff when there’s isn’t any)
Type 2- failure to reject null hypothesis that’s false. Res says there’s no sig diff when there actually is one
103
For bar charts what goes on top and bottom
Y-vertical the frewuencey
X-axis the categories
104
What are distributions
Normal distribution-symmetrical pattern of frequency forming bell shape pattern
Skewed-data that’s not symmetrical and data cluttered one one end.
There’s positive skew and negative skew
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What hypothesis shows whether there will be a negative or positive correlation between covariables being studied
Which hypothesis shows there will be a correlation but type is unknown
1-directional
2-non directional
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Reliability is…
A measure of consistent the findings from an investigation are
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Why is reliability important
-to ensure dv is being measured accurately
-To ensure over periods of time outcomes still the same
-To ensure all conclusions are valid and accurate
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How to assess reliability
Internal reliability -how consistent smth is within itself.
Split half method-randomly select half of questions and put them in one form and do same for other half.Two forms of the test done seperatley and should have same score. Correlation coefficient of 0.80
External reliability-when consistent results are produced regardless of when the investigations used and who administers if.
Test retest method-researcher administers same test on same person at diff times.It should lead to correlation coeffecient of 0.80. Some time should b left between test and retest so ppts can’t recall answers and not too long before attitude changes
Interobserver reliability -refers to extent to which there is agreement between two observers.eliminates subjectivity bias and used at end of study or in pilot.
Total no of agreements/ >0.80 =high
Total no of observations Interobserver
Reliability
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Ways to improve reliability in questionnaires
Interviews
Experiments
Observations
Q-that produces low test retest reliability needs to eliminate some items. Solution is to replace open questions with more closed to replace ambiguity
Interviews-use same interviewer each time or properly trained ones so no ambiguous questions
Experiments-lab has more control so more reliability and it’s more replicable.Field it’s harder but ppts being tested diff each time could affect reliability
Observations-make sure behavioural categories have been properly operationalised so they’re measurable and self evident. If not operationalised well diff observers have to make own judgements of what to record and where. Making inconsistent diff records
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What’s validity n what’s the types
Extent to which results and legit.
Internal validity - this is whether the outcomes observed in an experiment are due to the manipulation of the IV and not any other factor.
It is influenced by :
• Confounding and extraneous variables.
• Participant variables n demand characteristics
•investigator bias
External validity - factors outside the investigation - is it generalisable to other settings, populations & eras. There are different forms of external validity:
• Ecological validity- This is the extent to which findings can be generalised to other situations and dettings.
• Temporal validity - Generalisability to other historical times and eras
• Population validity - Generalisability to different populations of various
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Ways of assessing validity
Face-a measures scrutinised to see whether it does what it’s supposed to.(looking or passing an expert to check)
Concurrent-refers to the extent to which a psychological measure compares to a similar existing measure.
The results obtained should either match ar be closely similar to the results of the well established and recognised test
Predictive-how well a test can predict future events
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Ways of improving validity
In experimental research
Questionnaires
Observations
Qualitative methods
Experimental research
-Using a control group so researchers can see if change of dv is cuz of iv.
-Standardised procedures to minimise ppt reactivity and investigator effects
-double blind and single blind trials done to get same aim
Q-lie scale to see consistency and control social desirability bias. Validity increased by adding anonymity
Observations-this research has high ecological validity as minimal intervening from res and in covert there undetected so more natural.
Qualitative-higher ecological validity. As more depth and detail reflecting ppts reality. But still has to prove interpretative validity to the extent it matches those of ppts.
+triangulation (diff sources as evidence)
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How to do research report
ABSTRACT - this part includes a summary of all the key details of the research report.
These key details include the aim, hypothesis, method, results and conclusion. It is usually about 150-200 words long and is the part that is supposed to be read to know whether the research study is worth examining any further.
INTRO - This includes info of past research on a similar topic whereby relevant theories, studies and concepts are mentioned.
METHOD - description of what the researchers exactly did when they undertook the study. This includes the design, sample collected (specific details e.g. target population, sampling method, demographic data of participants), materials used, procedure (specific e.g. standardised instructions for each participant), ethics etc. There should be sufficient detail included so that any other person is able to read this part of the report and replicate the investigation precisely.
* RESULTS - This includes all the findings from the study, presented even with inferential and descriptive statistics. If qualitative data is collected then this section may include a thematic analysis.
DISCUSSIONS - This is where the researcher considers what the findings exactly mean for us and for psychological theories. Usually the findings are summarised here ,Limitations, how 2 improve the study and the wider implications it may have for society.
* REVERENCING - an alphabetical list of all the sources that were quoted or referred to in the report. T full details are given so that a reader is able to find the exact source the researcher was referring to.
Books are referenced differently from journals:
Books are referenced in this order: author(s), date, title of book,place of publication,publisher
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what to write when writing directional hypotheses
ppts who _________ (IV - cond.1) will be more/less ___________ (operationalised DV) than participants who ___________ (IV -cond. 2).
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what to write when writing non directional hypotheses
There will be a difference in ________(DV), measured by ___________(operationalised DV) for participants who ________(IV - condition 1)compared to those who __________(IV -condition 2).
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what's another way qualitative datas analysed
thematic analysis-no hypothesis testing involved
A theme is any feature of the data (e.g. an idea, a motif, a topic) which recurs throughout.researcher familiarises themselves w data by reading it over n over again.Themes within data emerge i.e. patterns, repeated concepts
researcher reviews themes n patterns to see if they can explain behaviour and answer the research question
The researcher then categorises and defines each theme e.g.
people in their 20s often refer to 'lack of savings', 'high rents' and 'lack of parental support' as obstacles to house-buying
The researcher writes up the analysis into their formal repor
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pros n cons of thematic analysis
Thematic analysis is mainly qualitative
It can provide insight into why, how and what people feel, think, experience
so its high in ecological validity researcher can quote directly from the OG source material enables them to add context to their report, bringing real, subjective human experience to the forefront of their findings
Limitations
time-consuming
The text must be studied, analysed and reviewed repeatedly in order to identify and categorise the themes
so some researchers may decide not to use it as an analytical tool which in turn limits its usefulness
The researcher may be prone to confirmation bias
Researchers may overlook themes which do not align with their preconceived ideas and focus only on those which support them
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what's in the consent form
1.what ppt has to do
2.how long theyre needed for
3.aim or most of the aim given w out confounding results
4.if there's neg consequences
5.can withdraw anytime
6.data w be kept anonymous and n confiiii
7.can ask questions whenever
8.signature name n date given
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Statement of significance for sign test
For a (one/two tailed test ) with a P value of P=(value) and a sample size of N=(value), the critical table value is (value). As the observed value of (value) is (less than/equal to/more than) the critical table value, it is (significant/not significant) and so the (alternative/null) hypothesis is accepted and the (alternative/null) hypothesis is rejected
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features of science
the prof
T - theory construction
H - hypothesis testing
E - empirical methods
P - paradigm
R - replicability
O - objectivity
F - falsification
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what's theory construction
theory- set of principles intending to explain certain behaviours or event.uses empirical evidence gathered via research to support its central assumptions and principles as a theory cannot exist based on beliefs alone.
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what's hypothesis testing
hypothesis= a prediction of what the researcher expects to find after conducting their research
must be objective and measurable "
study then conducted following the hypothesis, i.e. what the central focus of the study and how will the (IV) and (DV) be operationalised in the study?
When the study's findings analysed, decision can be made as to whether the null hypothesis can be accepted or rejected
If the null hypothesis can be rejected then the theory is strengthened as it means that the IV has affected the DV (a significant result)
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what's empirical methods
involves using scientific methods to collect data (quantitative data only) in ways controlled by the researcher and are replicable
they test hypotheses using methods gained from direct observation in a systematic way e.g.
The observational method is empirical as it is based on direct observation of behaviour as proposed by the behaviourists
case studies can't be employed as no attempt to exert control on the procedure
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what's paradigm
set of shared assumptions n methods within a particular discipline which distinguishes science from non‐science (Kuhn 1962)
Psychology is viewed as a pre‐science, (physics, biology and chemistry are science) as too much disparity between its various approaches (e.g. cognitive vs biological) e.g depression is the result of faulty thought processes
the biological argues that depression is the result of a neurochemical imbalance.
Paradigm shifts-occurs when a field of study moves forward through a scientific revolution,
generally when 1 or more scientists challenge an accepted paradigm, which may, first be ridiculed by the scientific community
As time passes these new ideas gain traction n more scientists challenge old theory, adding more research to contradict the existing assumptions
-A crucial point which the old paradigm is discarded for the new paradigm
Examples of paradigms and paradigm shifts in psychology
Psychoanalytic theory (popularised by Freud) prevailed from the late nineteenth century and was at the forefront of psychological thinking until behaviourism (around 1913) proposed the idea that all behaviour is learned from the environment
The cognitive approach took over in the 1950s with its emphasis on mental processes and machine reductionism
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what's replicability
a piece of research which could be carried out again by the same or another researcher and which would be likely to show consistent results
it inc the validity of the findings as it show that IV has affected the DV
It helps to inc the possibility of generalising the findings as the procedure can be repeated in diff settings w different samples
itsonly possible if the og research has been designed in which variables are controlled and there is great attention to detail in the design
The use of a standardised procedure ensure replicability as it eliminates sources of bias as all participants experience the same treatment per condition e.g.
Methods which generate qualitative data do not lend themselves to replicability e.g.
a case study based on one individual is not replicable as the data generated from it will only apply to that individual
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what's objectivity
using scientific methods to collect data (quantitative data only) in ways which are controlled by the researcher and which are objective
so it is possible to obtain empirical evidence
For a method to be objective it must strive to keep any personal, subjective or partial features or elements out of the research process
Objectivity must be maintained while the procedure is being conducted
Researchers have to be neutral n professional with participants
Researchers must not indicate to participants what they expect to find as a result
Objectivity must be maintained when research findings are being analysed
The researcher must not use any forms of bias when dealing with their findings
They should not be swayed by their prejudices or preconceptions when analysing the findings
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what's falsification
the ability of a theory to be found to be wrong
need to test the theory
If theory true= should withstand testing
The theories which survive constant testing are the strongest+most scientific
Being able to falsify a theory means that scientific methods can be used to test it
This is why significance testing is based on either rejecting or accepting the null hypothesis as it is the hypothesis that states that there is no effect of the IV on the DV
Some theories may not be false at first but later..
Theories tested repeatedly using controlled methods = falsifiable e.g.
localisation of brain function (e.g. Maguire et al., 2000)
Some theories do not lend themselves to hypothesis-testing and are thus unfalsifiable (which makes them unscientific)
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what's a concern of psychology
the implications of research and findings on the economy.
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examples of psychology affecting economy
Psychology, mental health and the economy
Psychology, attachment research and the economy
Psychology, social influence research and the economy
Psychology, eyewitness testimony and the economy
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What are third of all absences from work due to?
Mild and moderate mental health conditions e.g. stress and depression
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what research can help mental health
Research for effective treatments
Research for combining drug therapy + psychological therapy
Research for using combination of therapies so individuals can manage their condition effectively
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benefits of research helping mental health
People can return to work, saving the economy money
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positives and negatives of combining mental health research
will reduce strain on the NHS = less individuals will be admitted for treatment, if combined treatment is successfulIt
-will be more expensive reducing the financial benefit for the economy - especially for large number of people and needing treatment
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what's research into attachments done
shifted the importance of the mother + child rearing practices and lead to more shared parenting, inc the importance of the father in child rearing.
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pros n cons of research into attachment for economy
Due to flexible working hours within family it is the norm in lots of household that both parents earn money and maximise their income to contribute to the economy by working and paying taxes
but Fathers now entitled to paternity leave which cost economy =government funded. it costs employers as they have to hire someone to take on the workload. AND typically cuz of gender pay gap, fathers earn more = entitled to more paternity pay and contribute less to the economy than women
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how can research into ppl influence ppl
ISI research found individuals have desire to be right , presenting the information behind hotel guests towel washing/use and the water waste, significantly reduced the hotel guests towel consumption.
This can benefit the economy as it can change an individuals behaviour such as excess water use, this benefits the environment which in turn benefits the economy because less money will be used to protect the environment from excess water use
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How was research into the influence of leading questions on eyewitness testimony influence the economy?
Loftus and Palmer found that leading questions could alter someone's perception of events, this led to the development of the cognitive interview which does not use leading questions and has been found to improve the accuracy of an individuals eyewitness testimony.
This can benefit the economy because it means police will spend less resources looking for the wrong suspects as eyewitness testimony should be more accurate.
Also means that it will increase the likelihood of the correct person being convicted of the crime, therefore, not wasting economies money inaccurate convictions
