pyschopathology

Question 1

define abnormality

Answer 1

Behaviour goes against expectations of a community or culture, or what most people do

Question 2

what are the definitions for abnormality

Answer 2

statistical infrequency
deviation from social norms
failure to function adequately
deviation from ideal mental health

Question 3

what’s statistical infrequency

Answer 3

Abnormality is defined as those behaviour that are extremely rare, i.e any behaviour that is found in very few people is regarded abnormal.so if its frequency is more than two standard deviations away from the mean incidence rates represented on a normally-distributed bell curve.

Eg it would be seen as abnormal is a women have their baby later 20 and earlier than 40

Question 4

what’s deviation from social norms

Answer 4

is seen as deviation straying away from the social norms specific to a certain culture. There are general norms, applicable to the vast majority of cultures, as well as culture-specific norms. For example, an individual would be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder (APD) if they behave aggressively towards strangers (breaching a general social norm) and if they experience certain hallucinations (which breaches the social norms of multiple cultures also, whereas other cultures may encourage this as a sign of spirituality). or normal ones - having alcohol in the morning

Question 5

what’s failure to function adequately

Answer 5

proposed by rosenhan and seligmaan if a person’s current mental state is preventing them from leading a ‘normal’ life(alongside the associated normal levels of motivation and obedience to social norms) so when someones behaviour shows they are unable to meet these demands then they’re diagnosed as abnormal. the inability to cope may cause the individual or others around them distress which is factored into the definition.

Question 6

what’s deviation from mental health

Answer 6

this definition looks for signs that suggests there is an absence of wellbeing and deviation from normal functioning .Jahoda (1958) proposed a list of characteristics which are defined as normal and deviation from jahodas criteria of ideal mental health indicates abnormalit and a potential mental disorder.

Question 7

what is jahodas criteria for ideal mental health

Answer 7

Self-attitude -having a high self esteemed a strong sense of personal identity.
- Perception of reality-perceiving the world un a non distorted way with an objective and realistic view
- Autonomy -being independent, self reliant, and able to make personal decisions.
- Integreation = being able to cope in stressful situations
- Self-actualisation-experiences personal growth and development towards their potential
- Environmental mastery-being competent in all
aspects of life and able to meet the demands of all situations whilst having the flexibility to adapt to changes in life circumstances.

Question 8

what are the pros and cons for deviation from social norms

Answer 8

real life application - disorders like antisocial personality disorder ( ‘failure to conform to normative
behaviour’) can be assessed
and diagnosed.
it helps society help people suffering from mental disorders who may not be able to help themselves.this also helps members of the society as deviation from social norms can also affect others and social norms made to create society functioning adequately

howeeveverr,judgements on deviance are often related to the context of a behaviour. Eg. a person one at beach wearing a swim suit is normal, where same outfit in classroom would be regarded as abnormal
so social deviance on its own cannot offer a complete definition of abnormality as it is inevitably related to both context and degree.
subject to cultural relativism . 1eg would be ‘hallucinations’. Some African/ Asian cultures in particular would look upon this positively, viewing it as a sign of spirituality , as opposed to a symptom of Schizophrenia. This suggests that the use of this definition may lead to some discrepancies in the diagnoses of disorders, between cultures.
subject to temporary validity-social norms can change over time so something that is socially acceptable can be seen deviant later eg homosexuality fine now but back then it was seen as socially deviant n classed as mental disorder back.

Question 9

pros and cons of statistical infrequency-

Answer 9

Sometimes it is appropriate - eg intellectual disability is defined as an IQ which is more then two SDs bellow the mean.This suggests that statistical infrequency is only one of a number of tools

its always used in the clinical diagnoses of mental health disorders as a comparison with a baseline value. This is used to assess the severity of the disorder
— makes the assumption that any abn characteristics are automatically negative, whereas this is not always the case. For eg, displaying abnormal levels of empathy or having an IQ score above 130 would rarely be looked down upon as negative characteristics which require treatment.so it means that we are unable to distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviours
culture bound too so it doesn’t take in what’s abnormal and normal. smth that’s normal in one country may be seen abnormal in another due to its statistical infrequency.and behaviours that were stat rare back then may not be rare now so statistics can be outdated

Question 10

pros and cons of deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 10

-unrealistic high standards by jahodas criteria so most people who don’t pass the criteria is seen as abnormal so diagnosis sets requirements on how you would like to be than how you actually are
-culturally based on set of ideals placed by jahoda. some stuff could be niormal in one cultureand may provide an incorrect diagnosis of what deviation from mental health looks like eg collectivist culture would focus on communal goals than personal autonomy.also poor ppl may struggle to pass all criteria comp to ppl w lots of resources.
measuring the criteria could be difficult and require subjective ops and generalisation to everyones sitch is hard.
buuuut it allows for clear goals to be set to achieve ideal mental health, and, in Jahoda’s ops, to achieve normality : also it allows for an individual who is struggling to have targeted intervention if their behaviour is not ‘normal’

Question 11

pros and cons of failure to function adequately

Answer 11

it needs someone to judge whether behaviour someone displays is abnormal or not so could be subjective.eg someone might say stressing from bills is abnormal another may say its the pitfalls of adult life
may suffer from cultural bias as its related to how one culture believes an individual should live their life so this could lead to inaccurate diagnosis for culturally diverse ppl and ppl of diff socioeconomic backgrounds
abnormality may not b followed for diff dysfunctional traits eg psychos can be crazy but still appear normal eg Harold shipman eng doctor who killed 200 people but still appeared normal.

strength is that it takes a patient centred view and does recognise the experience of individual and those who wish to seek intervention. so the final diagnosis will be comprised of the patient’s (subjective) self- reported symptoms and the psychiatrist’s objective opinion.and we can diagnose without the restrain of statistics.
Behaviour is observable n can be seen by others around the individual because they may not get out of bed on a morning,This means that problems can be picked up by others .
GAF allows for failure to function adequately to be measured in a relatively objective way.

Question 12

what are phobias

Answer 12

A group of mental disorders characterised by high levels of anixety in respone to a particular stimulus or group of stimulus.

Question 13

what are the behavioural characteristics of phobias

Answer 13

panic-may involve crying screaming eg person w a panic disorder may experience a sudden and intense fear when faced with trigger.
avoidance-behaviour is negatively reinforced cuz it is carried out to avoid the unpleasant consequence of exposure to the phobic stimulus. can make it difficult to go along w daily life eg persona fear of spiders may exp freeze or flight response
endurance-remains in presence of phobic stimulus but has high levels of anxiety eg person w fear of heights may be on tall building but still scared.

Question 14

what are the emotional characteristics of phobia

Answer 14

-anxiety (the emotional consequence of the physiological response of panic)
- an unawareness that the anxiety experienced towards the phobic stimulus is irrational (from an evolutionary perspective, the phobic anxiety is not proportionate to the threat posed by the stimulus).
cues of emotions when stimulus present eg fear= Immediate response Occurs when encountering or thinking about the phobic stimulus

Question 15

what are the cognitive characteristics of phobias

Answer 15

• Selective attention — this means that the patient remains focused on the phobic stimulus, even when it is causing them severe anxiety. This may be the result of irrational beliefs or cognitive distortions.
• Irrational beliefs — this may be the cause of unreasonable responses of anxiety towards the phobic stimulus, due to the patient’s incorrect perception as to what the danger posed actually is.
• Cognitive distortions — the patient does not perceive the phobic stimulus accurately. Therefore, it may often appear grossly distorted e.g. mycophobia (a phobia of mushrooms)

Question 16

how are phobias characterised

Answer 16

by excessive fear and anxiety caused by the object place or situation

Question 17

what are the behavioural characteristics of depression

Answer 17

changed activity levels (may result in psychomotor agitation or, on the other end of the spectrum, an inability to wake up and get out of bed in the morning),
aggression (towards oneself and towards others, which may be verbal or physical)
and changed in patterns of sleeping and eating (insomnia and obesity on one end of the spectrum, whilst constant lethargia and anorexia may appear on the other).

Question 18

what are the emotional characteristics of depression

Answer 18

lowered self-esteem,
constant poor mood (lasting for months at a time and high in severity, therefore not simply ‘feeling down’) and
high levels of anger (towards oneself and towards others).

Question 19

what are the cognitive characteristics of depression

Answer 19

absolutist thinking (jumping to irrational conclusions e.g. “I am unable to visit my mother today and so I am a failure of a son”),

selective attention towards negative events (patients with depression often recall only negative events in their lives, as opposed to positive) and

poor concentration (the consequent disruptions to school and work add to the feelings of worthlessness and anger).

Question 20

what are the behavioural characteristics of OCD

Answer 20

Compulsions (repetitive intrusive thoughts focused around stimulus that relieve anxiety from obsessive thoughts. and avoidance behaviour. avoidance behaviour is once again negatively reinforced cuz an individual who avoids specific stimulus will avoid anxiety associated with having to carry out compulsive behaviours and suffer from obsessive thoughts.

Question 21

what are the emotional characteristics of OCD?

Answer 21

guilt, disgust, depression
(due to the constant compulsion to carry out compulsive/repetitive behaviours, which often interfere with day to day functioning and relationships) and anxiety (associated with acknowledgement that obsessive thoughts are irrational, but despair at the fact that theylle always lead to compulsive behaviours).

Question 22

what are the cognitive characteristics of ocd?

Answer 22

-the patient’s acknowledgement that their anxiety is excessive + irrational (a hallmark of OCD),
-the development of cognitive strategies to deal with obsessions (such as always carrying multiple bottles of hand sanitiser)
-obsessive thoughts (these are repetitive, focus on the stimulus, intrusive, cause LOTS of anxiety and lead to compulsive behaviours).

Question 23

what’s the 2 process model?

Answer 23

that phobias are learned by classical conditioning - involves associating a neutral stimulus with a fear response.
and maintained through operant conditioning + this occurs as avoiding the feared stimulus reduces anxiety, reinforcing the avoidance behavior.(Mowrer 1960)

Question 24

what’s classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

Answer 24

learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g tone) becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g.food) that naturally produces a behaviour.
A type of learning where behaviour is acquired and maintained based on its consequences. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of the observed behaviour being repeated, whilst punishment (an unpleasant consequence of behaviour) decreases this likelihood.

Question 25

How does classical conditioning contribute to the development of phobias?

Answer 25

Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus (such as a spider) is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (such as pain or fear). Eventually, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response (such as fear).

Question 26

what is the behaviourist approach on phobias

Answer 26

According to the behavioural approach, people develop phobias due to a combination of classical and operant conditioning. This is known as the two-process model. this is supported by the father of behaviourism WATSOOON 1920 which shows classical conditioning.

Question 27

what was Watsons study 1920

Answer 27

conducted a lab exp to examine whether a fear response could be learned through classical conditioning, in humans. demonstrated by Little Albert associating the fear caused by a loud bang with a white rat. He was exposed to a white rat (NS), producing no response. When paired with the loud bang (UCS), this produced the UCR of fear. Through several repetitions, Albert made association between the rat (CS) and fear (CR). This conditioning then generalised to other objects e.g. white fluffy Santa Claus hats.

Question 28

when does operant conditioning take place in phobias

Answer 28

Operant conditioning takes place when a behaviour is rewarded or punished. traumatic events that occur produce negative feelings which then become conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli like object.Phobias are then maintained by operant conditioning which explains why people continue to remain fearful. Eg, phobics practice avoidance behaviours, so that they avoid the phobic stimulus. By avoiding phobic stimulus, they avoid the associated fear. By avoiding such an unpleasant consequence, the avoidance behaviour is negatively reinforced and likely to be repeated again, hence maintaining the phobia.as behaviour resulting in avoiding sth unpleasant then its a negative reinforcement

Question 29

what's another example of classical conditioning other than little Albert

Answer 29

Pavlov 1903-

Question 30

pros and cons of 2 process model

Answer 30

The case study of Little Albert (Watson & Rayner, 1920) offers research support for the development of phobias -useful application to treating phobias, it sets out the mechanisms via which phobias are conditioned, resulting in the development of therapies such as systematic desensitisation which work to reverse this process to successfully treat phobias Good explanatory power - lead to important implications for therapy as it explains that patients need to be exposed to the feared stimulus.Mowrer emphasises the importance of exposing the patient to the phobic stimulus as it prevents the negative reinforcement of avoidance behaviour. The patient realises that the phobic stimulus is harmless and that their responses are irrational/disproportionate, thus translating into a successful therapy. - TPM cannot explain why some people may have continuous aversive experiences and yet do not develop a phobia, shows conditioning alone can't explain phobias. e.g.: someone who was bitten by a dog as a child who does not develop cynophobia -TPM is an incomplete model of phobias.We easily acquire phobias of things that were a danger in our evolutionary past (eg. snakes) rather than cars, which are more dangerous. This is biological preparedness, we are innately more likely to sacred of some things. (Seligman 1971). The phenomenon of biological preparedness is problem for two-process model because it suggests there is more to acquiring phobias than simple conditioning. -There are ALT explanations for avoidance behaviour -Buck suggested that safety is a greater motivator for avoidance behaviour, rather than simply avoiding the anxiety linked 2 phobic stimulus. For eg, he uses the example of social anxiety phobias - this explains why some agoraphobics are able to leave their house with a close trusted friend with little to no anxiety but not alone (Buck 2010). This is a problem for the two-step process model which states that avoidance is motivated by anxiety reducing behavior. -phobias also have cognitive symptoms such as irrational beliefs. The two-process theory does not adequately address the cognitive element of phobias.

Question 31

what's social learning

Answer 31

it is not part of the two process model but it is a neo-behaviorist explanation as phobias may be acquired through modelling the behavior of others.

Question 32

what are the behavioural approaches t treating phobias to

Answer 32

systematic desensitisation flooding

Question 33

what is systematic desensitisation

Answer 33

designed to reduce phobic anxiety through gradual exposure to the phobic stimulus.using principles of counter conditioning.

Question 34

how does systematic desensitisation work

Answer 34

learn a new response to the phobic stimulus i.e. relaxation rather than panic. This works due to reciprocal inhibition i.e. it’s impossible to be both relaxed and anxious at the same time. Firstly, the patient and therapist draw up an anxiety hierarchy together, made up of situations involving the phobic stimulus, ordered from least to most nerve-wrecking. The therapist then teaches patient relaxation techniques e.g. breathing techniques and meditation, to be used at each of these anxiety levels. The patient works their way up through the hierarchy, only progressing to the next level when they have remained calm in the present level. The phobia is cured when the patient can remain calm at the highest anxiety level.

Question 35

what is flooding

Answer 35

behavioural therapy designed to reduce phobic anxiety in one session, through immediate exposure to the phobic stimulus.

Question 36

how does flooding work

Answer 36

occurs in a secure environment from which the patient cannot escape - without the option of practising avoidance behaviour, such behaviour is not reinforced and so the phobia is not maintained. Thus, in the case of a spider phobia, the patient will instantly be exposed to a room full of large spiders, which can crawl over them. This relies on the principle that it is physically impossible to maintain a state of heightened anxiety for a prolonged period, meaning that eventually, the patient will learn that the phobic stimulus is harmless.

Question 37

pros and cons of desensitisation

Answer 37

Supporting evidence = Gilroy et al. followed up 42 patients treated in 3 sessions of SD for a spider phobia. progress was compared to a control group of 50 patients who learnt only relaxation techniques. Phobia severity was measured using the Spider Questionnaire and observation.At both 3 and 33 months, the SD group showed a reduction in their symptoms compared to the control group, and so has been used as evidence supporting the effectiveness of flooding. SD is suitable for many patients, including those w learning difficulties = Anxiety disorders are often accompanied w learning disabilities so those patients might not make full cognitive commitment associated with cognitive behavioural therapy, or have the ability to evaluate their own thoughts., systematic desensitisation would be a particularly suitable alternative for them. More acceptable to patients, as shown by low refusal and attrition rates. = This idea also has economical implications because it increases the likelihood that the patient will agree to start and continue with the therapy, as opposed to getting ‘cold feet’ and wasting the time and effort of the therapist! SD isn't effective in treating all phobias. Patients with phobias which have not developed through a personal experience (classical conditioning) forego , a fear of heights, are not effectively treated using SD. Some psychologists believe that certain phobias, , have evolutionary survival benefit so not result of personal experience, result of evolution. These phobias highlight SD is ineffective in treating evolutionary phobias.

Question 38

pros and cons of flooding

Answer 38

Cost-effective - Ougrin compared flooding to cognitive therapies and found it to be cheaper. This is because the patient’s phobia will typically be cured in one session, thus freeing them of their symptoms to live normally. — = Less effective for complex phobias. Social phobias involve both anxiety and a cognitive aspect i.e. thinking unpleasant thoughts about a situation. Thus, in such cases, cognitive therapy may be more appropriate because this therapy can target the distal causes of the phobia, as opposed to the(indirect) causes. This shows that alternatives may be more effective.

Question 39

what's the cognitive explanations to explaining depressions

Answer 39

Beck's Negative Triad and Ellis's ABC Mode

Question 40

what's becks cognitive triad

Answer 40

Becks proposed that one has a cognitive vulnerability towards developing depression, through faulty info processing, neg self-schemas + the cognitive triad of automatic neg thoughts. Through faulty info processing, patient blows small problems out of proportion, attending to and dwelling on the negative, whilst thinking in ‘black and white’ terms.these can include over generalising and overcastrophising Through negative self-schemas, the patient interprets all information about themselves from the world in a negative light, further lowering their self-confidence. Through the cognitive triad, the patient suffers from negative automatic thoughts about the self, the future and the world.

Question 41

pros and cons of becks cognitive triad

Answer 41

increased understanding of the cognitive basis of depression =more effective treatments i.e. elements of the cognitive triad can be easily identified by a therapist and challenged as irrational thoughts on the patient’s part. so= a successful therapy n. CBT’s effectiveness supports te accuracy of Beck’s theory as a valid explanation for depression. The researchers found a positive correlation between an increased cognitive vulnerability and an increased likelihood of acquiring depression after birth in 60 pregnant women. supports the link between faulty cognition and depression, which is in line with the predictions made by Beck’s cognitive theory, thus increasing the validity of this theory. they cannot explain all aspects of depression e.g. hallucinations, anger, Cotard Syndrome. This poses a difficult practical issue in that patients may become frustrated that their symptoms cannot be explained according to this theory and therefore cannot be addressed in therapy.

Question 42

what's ellis abc model?

Answer 42

Ellis proposed that an activating event (A)like a trigger, leads to an irrational belief (B), which results in an emotional consequence (C) in the form of depression. The key here is the specific interpretation of the irrational belief, which is why some people have depression, whilst others don’t, according to the ABC model.

Question 43

evaluate ellis abc model

Answer 43

its practical application in CBT. The success of CBT in treating depression supports model by showing that identifying and challenging irrational beliefs is key to recovery. highlights the role of faulty cognitions in developing depression, esp in how individuals interpret activating events. Ellis’ ABC model cannot explain all types of depression, apart from those which clearly have an activating event i.e. reactive depression. , many suffering from depression without an apparent cause, may feel frustrated that their concerns/experiences are not reflected in this theory. suggesting that the ABC model is limited at best + cannot explain all aspects of depression e.g. hallucinations, anger, Cotard Syndrome. furthermore it blames patient rather than situational factors for their disorders overlooking their situation assuming they can just think themselves better which isn't the case diathesis stress model might be an alt explanations for depression and negative beliefs. and that ppl might have genetic vulnerability for disorder and right environment can trigger negative thinking leading to DDD..supported by links to low levels of serotonin in depressed patients =cognive explanation oversimplified masking true bio cause

Question 44

how do beliefs work in ellis abc model

Answer 44

if a person thinks they're a failure after their musts aren’t met they're more likely to experience emotionally worthless. Mustabatory thinking, a part of Ellis’s ABC model, explains how irrational, beliefs link to depression. These beliefs involve thinking that certain conditions must be met for happiness (e.g., “I must be successful” or “People must like me”), leading to distress when not met. This negative outlook of events reinforces depressive symptoms, supporting the role of faulty cognition depression. Ellis’s model further supported by CBT, showing that modifying these beliefs can reduce depression, supporting the role of cognition in its development.

Question 45

what's the cognitive approach to treating depression

Answer 45

CBT is the main form to treat ppl w depression and it ws first introduced by ellis as REBTit aims to identify and challenge irrational thoughts, replacing them with more productive behaviours, and thus treating depression. they undergo behavioural action where they engage in pleasurable activities( most depressed ppl don't undergo) challenging the neg thoughts and alleviating depressive symptoms. they undergo challenging irrational thoughts=patients see link between thoughts and emotions and to record any activating events that occur.they think ab negative thoughts about this event and enc to challenge w positive thoughts questioning the logic and if its pragmatic n helpful.ppl become more objective replacing dysfunctional thoughts w constructive thinking helping emosh state x

Question 46

pros and cons of cognitive ways to treat depression

Answer 46

time and cost-unlike drug therapies cbt=multiple sessions w trained therapist. also as drug therapies are cheaper ppl may prefer to just take meds than share feelings w stranger esp if they're all struggling to engage w others. CBT is only effective if therapist if fully skilled too to form collaborative relationship w patient.kuyken showed 15% variance in outcome of CBT is according to therapists competency. strength-therapy has no side effects unlike drug therapies. some patients who suffer from health conditions and unable to make lifestyle changes that drug therapies would reinforce ,CBT is a good alt for them. IT treats root of depression as more holistic approach so more long lasting effect compared to drug therapies which may mask n treat symptoms and only effective on the meds.CBT has lower relapse relates and no concerns of addiction compared to drug therapies where ppl can get addicted to antidepressants so more appropriate for ppl who struggle w this x

Question 47

explain the biological approach for explaining OCD

Answer 47

it relies on genetic and neural explanations

Question 48

what's the genetic explanations for explaining old

Answer 48

The genetic explanation, through the diathesis-stress model, suggests that some have a genetic vulnerability towards developing depression. eg, Lewis et al. found that from his OCD patients, 37% had parents with OCD and 21% had siblings with OCD. OCD is polygenic, meaning that up to 230 different genes are involved in its development. often associated with the functioning of neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and serotonin, both associated with regulating mood. Researchers have identified candidate genes which increase a person’svulnerability towards developing OCD. ie COMT gene which regulates and dopamine levels which high levels usually found in ppl w ocd. OR SERT gene which efficiency of transportation of serotonin can affect OCD. OCD is also aetiologically heterogenous, meaning that its origin has many different causes.

Question 49

pros and cons of genetic explanation for old

Answer 49

high research evidence-twin and family studies show higher concordance rates than general population showing genetics involved. weakness is that not all twins show old tendencies despite having same genes which show odd can't be based on just genes(could b environmental stressors with genetic factors cannot account for) so this theory is oversimplified and reductionist. Too many candidate genes = With over 230 candidate genes each individually coding for an increased risk of OCD, then this poses a practical issue in that it is difficult to assess which candidate genes have the greatest influence and what genes drugs should target. also it shows old is not one specific gene and single isolated disorder but its on a spectrum linked to other disorders. family members display diff forms of odd.eg adults w odd roughly wash dishes where kids roughly arrange dolls.if disorder was hereditary then surely behaviours similar.so psychological explanations better suited here as even if they do do similar behaviour child may learn from parents modelling not because they inherited.

Question 50

what's a better model?explanation for old

Answer 50

diathesis stress model-better suited as it factors in genetics and psychological factors like environmental stressors.showing ppl have genetic vulnerability to develop OCD providing right trigger from environment..explains effectively why identical twins may not share the disorder and account for high concordance rates between family members and more holistic exp for OCD.

Question 51

neural explanations for oCD

Answer 51

neural explanations have focused primarily on serotonin and dopamine levels . High levels of dopamine -schetzman found that when animals were given drugs that increased dopamine levels behaviours resembled OCD like.same w low levels of ocd.eg Pigott et al found antidepressants which inc serotonin activity have been found to reduce OCD tendencies in patients.other antidepressants that don't inc serotonin activity have been found to be ineffective which suggests low levels of serotonin linked to disorder. pet scans have also seen these low levels The basal ganglia is a brain structure involved coordination of movement. Patients who suffer head injuries in this region often develop OCD-like symptoms, after their recovery. Max et al. (1994) found when basal ganglia is disconnected from the frontal cortex OCD-like symptoms are reduced, providing further support for the role of the basal ganglia in OCD. Another brain region associated with OCD is the orbitofrontal cortex, a region which converts sensory info = thoughts and actions. PET scans found higher activity in orbitofrontal cortex in patients with OCD. 1 suggestion is that heightened activity in orbitofrontal cortex inc the conversion of sensory information to actions (behaviours) which results in compulsions. The increased activity also prevents patients from stopping their behaviours.

Question 52

pros nd cons of these neural explanations

Answer 52

Research suggests that low serotonin levels or dysfunction in the serotonin system may contribute to OCD, supported by the effectiveness of serotonin-enhancing antidepressants. However, since research is correlational, it cannot confirm cause and effect—OCD may influence serotonin and dopamine levels rather than the reverse. Not all OCD sufferers respond to these drugs, suggesting serotonin imbalance isn’t the sole cause. If neural abnormalities play a role, they are likely influenced by genetics, making neural explanations overly simplistic. A full understanding of OCD should consider genetic, environmental, and psychological factors alongside neural mechanisms.

Question 53

biological approach to treating OCD

Answer 53

antidepressants.brings serotonin levels back to normal reducing anxiety associated w OCD too.drugs could be SRRI's which inhibit reuptake of serotonin which released into synapse from neuron's by blocking receptor cells.this increases serotonin levels and stimulation at the synapses alleviating old tendencies. tricyclics are also used for OCD it blocks the transportation mechanism which reabsorbs serotonin and noradrenaline into presynaptic after firing.as serotonin builds up in synapse this prolongs their activity and eases transmission of new impulse antipsychotic drugs have also been used which aid in lowering dopamine levels as high levels have been associated w disorder.given if SSRI's aren't effective to their side effects.

Question 54

pros and cons of drug therapy

Answer 54

-side effects. eg, for those taking Clomipramine, more than one in 10 suffer from erection problems, weight gain and tremors. More than 1 in 100 suffer from increased HR and aggressiveness. These can have serious implications on how the patient can go about their everyday lives. - they don't cure old they mask the symptoms of bio disorder rather than cure it.cbt may be more appropriate as no sideffects. + Increased knowledge about the effectiveness of certain drug treatments for OCD can reduce the time people take off work through sick days, thus increasing the productivity of workforce and ensuring that more people are working. This means that morepeople will be paying taxes. Research into the cost-effectiveness of treatments for OCD (and other psychiatric disorders) can be the basis of public health services choosing which treatments they use, which can help organisations like the NHS save money. — A strength of such drug use is that it’s cost-effective and non-disruptive. They are cheap compared to psychological treatments, and so good value for public health organizations like NHS. They are also non-disruptive and some are fast acting.Patients can discretely take the drugs to manage their symptoms and lead a relatively normal life, as compared to life in hospital.