PSY2002 S2 W3 Training Effect and Mechanism

Question 1

What does the activation-based models assume?

Answer 1

that working memory holds information temporarily in a heightened state of availability.

Question 2

Why is there variation in working memory?

Answer 2

Variation in working memory is a matter of debate whether it is caused by individual differences in executive attention or the number of bindings

Question 3

What is the classic study of brain training?

Ericsson et al. 1980

Answer 3

‘After more 230 hours of practice in the lab, a subject was able to increase memory span from 7 to 79 digits. Appropriate mnemonic system, seemingly no limit to memory performance with practice’
Transfer: improvement in a practice tasks lead to improvement in unpractice tasks.

Question 4

Ericcson et al.’s 1980: was that task specific?

Answer 4

In one experimental session, S.F. was switched from digits to letters of the alphabet after 3 months of practice and exhibited no transfer: His memory span dropped back to about six consonants”
Just by changing digit to letters the participants was demonstrating no transfar

Question 5

What is process-based training?

Answer 5

repeated practice of specific tasks targeting cognitive processes
Daily practice of complew span tasks
Assumed to transfer to other contexts
Tasks are difficult to create strategies for negates strategy based training e.g. images, difficult to verbalise, quick response time etc.

Question 6

What is functional overlap

Answer 6

Transfer is expected if practiced and non-practiced tasks share underlying processes

Question 7

What is working memory correlated with?

Answer 7

Variation in working memory is correlated with variation in many other abilities. By enhancing working memory, we might be able to improve a wide range of related cognitive abilities.
Working memory as a core ability

Question 8

Training and transfer – what would a successful training look like?

Answer 8

Practice: working mmory training tasks (n-back)
Near Transfer: untrained working memory tasks (complex span task)
Far Transfer: different (but related) cognitive ability (reasoning)

Question 9

how can we measure training effects?

Answer 9

Performance at a pretest (baseline) assessment is compared to performance at a post-test after training.
Change is evaluated relative to a control groups.

Question 10

What is passive control?

Answer 10

no intervention

Question 11

What are passive control appropriate to control group?

Answer 11

test-retest effects (improved performance with familiarity - test 1 and 2)

Question 12

Whata re passive control not appropriate to control for?

Answer 12

other factors that affected the period in between test and retest (e.g. motivation)
Placebo effect

Question 13

What is active control?

Answer 13

alternative intervention

Question 14

What is active control appropriate to control for?

Answer 14

Other factors that affected the period in between test and retest (e.g., motivation)
Placebo effect

Question 15

What is a seminal training studies?

Klingberg et al.’s 2002 Training study

Answer 15

Can intensive working memory training help children with attention deficits such as in ADHD?
Computerised training program with a variety of working memory tasks.
Tested improvements relative to an active control group in the trained and in untrained tasks.

Question 16

What is an example training task?

Answer 16

Visuo-spatial working memory task

Question 17

What is transfer task?

Answer 17

raven’s progressive matrice

Question 18

What was the design of Klingberg et al. 2002?

in ADHD

Answer 18

Training (5weeks): intensive 5x day, WM training vs Low-dose (x1 day); WM training
Post-test
Chznge in training and transfer tasks

Question 19

What did they find?

Klingberg et al. 2002

in ADHD

Answer 19

First evidence for training and transfer effects but very small group size (n=7) Group size are very small and distribution of the data is very broad

Question 20

What was a replicatio study of the Klingberg et al. 2002?

Klingberg et al. 2005

in ADHD

Answer 20

Multicentre, randomised controlled trial (N=53)
Training 5 weeks: adaptive WM training vs Non-adaptive WM training.
Follow-up 3 months: change in training and transfer tasks

Question 21

What is adaptive WM training and Non-adpative WM training?

Klingberg et al. 2005

in ADHD

Answer 21

Adaptive WM training = change in difficulty
Difficulty increases as you get better 2 > 3 > 4 > 5 > 6
Non-Adaptive WM training: Same difficult level
Lowest level of difficulty
2-3 items memory test

Question 22

What was the results of the replicatio study?

Klingberg 2005

Answer 22

Larger benefits in adaptive relative to non-adaptive WM training group in the practice tasks.
Larger benefits in adaptive relative to non-adaptive WM training group in un-practiced inhibition and reasoning tasks.

However, although corrected differences are significant, uncorrected group differences in change are only small.

Question 23

Can we see this training and transfer effect of working memory training ini people without ADHD?

Jaeggi et al.’s 2008 Training study

Answer 23

Training (8-19 sessions): WM training vs Passive control (no intervention)
Post-test: change in training and transfer tasks
Dual N-back Training uses both visual and auditory stimuli
Reuslts: significant improvement, far-transfer. Significant effect of transfer

Question 24

What was Redick et al. 2013 study?

Answer 24

Pre-test
Training [10 sessions]: WM training vs Active control (visual search) vs Passive control (no intervention)
Mid-test
Training [10 sessions]
Post-test: change in multiple training and transfer task
Results: No significant near transfer effect, No significant far transfer effects (spatial reasoning)

Question 25

What led to highly active field of research?

Answer 25

hype and inconsistencies

Question 26

Does WM training work?

Answer 26

Inconsistent evidence across a large number of studies.

Question 27

Why is research on working memory (training) are inconsistent?

Answer 27

Methodological issues Theoretical issues

Question 28

What are the methodological issues? | Shipstead et al., 2012

Answer 28

Lack of active controls - Placebo effects Single tasks used for measuring cognitive abilities - Task-impurity problem Small sample sizes - Low statistical power and imprecise measurement

Question 29

What are the theoretical issues? | von Bastian & Oberauer, 2014

Answer 29

Many studies lack theoretical framework of training and transfer. Without theory explaining mechanisms of transfer (i.e. why we expect effects), we can’t predict when we should observe effects.

Question 30

What is the multiple sources of variance framework? | von Bastian & Oberauer, 2014

Answer 30

Intervention-specific factor > Training & Transfer Individual differences > Training & Transfer Training >Transfer Transfer > Observed effects

Question 31

What are the two proposed mechanisms of transfer?

Answer 31

Enhanced capacity Enhanced efficiency

Question 32

What is the enhanced capacity of transfer?

Answer 32

Training increases the number of information elements held in working memory (i.e. larger broad focus of attention). Prediction: Training leads to broad transfer effects

Question 33

What is the enhanced efficiency of transfer?

Answer 33

Training supports a more efficient use of the existing capacity through strategies or faster processing. Prediction: Training leads to selective transfer effects

Question 34

What was De Simoni & von Bastian's 2018 training study?

Answer 34

Pre-test Training [20 sessions]: WM binding training vs WM updating training vs Active control (visual search) - randomly assigned, double blind 4 tasks per intervention Post-test: change in training and transfer tasks. 4 task per ability, trained abilities, near transfer, far transfer

Question 35

What was the results of De Simoni & von Bastian's 2018 training study

Answer 35

Large improvements in the trained tasks No evidence for near transfer No evidence for far transfer Training improved neither WM capacity nor efficiency. But: might be different for other WM tasks or measures of specific types of efficiency.

Question 36

What could enhancing WM improve?

Answer 36

improve a range of other, functionally overlapping abilities

Question 37

How can transfer occur?

Answer 37

Through enhancing capacity or efficicency

Question 38

What studies reported far transfer?

Answer 38

* Seminal training studies reported far transfer, but these findings are difficult to replicate

Question 39

Why is there inconsistent results?

Answer 39

Multiple sources of variance may contribute to these inconsistent results

Question 40

Is WM training effective? | Summary

Answer 40

Training produces large improvements in the trained tasks but rarely transfer. Transfer effects, if existing, are small and volatile. We can rule out a range of potential moderators, but we still don’t know why training “works” better in some studies than others.

Question 41

Do some people gain more from training than others?

Answer 41

Posibile factors that might effect training (individual difference): Age, Gender, Personality, Motivation, Beliefs, … Guye et al's 2017 study: How are demographics, personality, motivation, and beliefs related to the slope in training progress? Results: Limited evidence for individual differences predicting slope in training progress. However, results may differ for samples with successful training and transfer.

Question 42

What was Melby-Lervag et al. 2016 meta analysis?

Answer 42

Does effectiveness depend on the type of training task? On average, Cogmed induces relatively larger verbal near transfer, but n-back yields relatively larger far transfer. Does effectiveness depend on training dose? Training dose has little effect; the only significant difference occurs for far transfer – but in the opposite direction!

Question 43

Do individual differences affect training progress?

Answer 43

Yes, large individual differences in training progress. Complex span task: often increasingly large individual differences bu the end of training session

Question 44

Who benefits from the large individual differences in training progress?

Answer 44

3 hypotheses Magnification: people with higher ability gain more Compensation; people with lower ability gain more No difference

Question 45

What was the Guye et al. 2017 study?

Answer 45

How are initial training performance and slope training progress related? YA showed magnification of initial task performance Little effect in older adults