PSYC Midterm Flashcards
(103 cards)
1
Q
Epistemology
A
The philosophical study of where knowledge comes from
2
Q
Tenacity
A
It has always been accepted as true
3
Q
Intuition
A
It feels correct
4
Q
Authority
A
A respected source says it’s true
5
Q
Rationalism
A
Using logical reasoning (if A then B) to dra a conclusion from premises
6
Q
Empiricism
A
Observation through the senses (directly or indirectly)
7
Q
Availability Heuristic
A
Things that come easily yo mind seem likely
8
Q
Hindsight bias
A
Things seem obvious after you know the outcome
9
Q
Confirmation bias
A
Looking for evidence that confirms our beliefs
10
Q
Bias about bias
A
other people are biased; we aren’t
11
Q
Falsifiability
A
Theory must lead to hypothesis that, when tested, could actually fail to support the theory
12
Q
Parsimony
A
Preference for simplest explanation
13
Q
Applied research
A
Done with a practical problem in mind
14
Q
Basic research
A
Goal to enhance body of knowledge
15
Q
Pseudoscience
A
Hypotheses that aren’t falsifiable
Claims are not directly supported by empirical evidence
Employs method of tenacity and/or authority
Not grounded in past scientific research
16
Q
What question am I trying to answer?
A
Variables and relationships
17
Q
What kind of data should I collect?
A
Measurement
18
Q
Whom should I measure?
A
Sampling
19
Q
How will I collect those measurements and what will they be able to tell me?
A
Research strategy and statistical inference
20
Q
Variable
A
Thing that varies- must have at least two levels
21
Q
constant
A
only has one level in the study
22
Q
Frequencies
A
Rate or degree of a single variable
23
Q
correlations
A
one level of a variable is associated with a particular level of another variable
24
Q
Causal
A
One variable is responsible for changing another
25
Research strategy
The empirical approach used to gather data
26
Statistical Validity
Extent to which a study's statistical conclusions are accurate/reasonable
27
Quantitative research
Statistical conclusions
28
Qualitative research
Draws descriptive conclusions
29
Descriptive research
Characterize single variable
30
Relational research
relate multiple variables
31
Correlational
Variables are NOT manipulated, NOT randomly assigned
32
Quasi-experimental
Participants are grouped but NOT randomly assigned to conditions
33
Experimental
Independent variable is actively manipulated and participants are randomly assigned to conditions
34
External validity
How well results of a study represent the people or context besides those in the original study
35
Sampling bias
Non-representative samples make it difficult to generalize population
36
Novelty effect
Being in a study can cause participants to behave strangely
37
Multiple treatment interference
Experience in previous treatment condition changes behavior I subsequent condition
38
Measurement timing
Results might be different if measurement was taken at a different time
39
Operational definitions
Results could be specific to choice of operational definition
40
Internal Validity
How sure are we that X causes Y
41
Experiment
Research design in which researchers manipulated at least one variable and measured another ; Participants are randomly assigned to a level of the independent variable
42
Extraneous variable
Anything other than the manipulated variable that might be influencing the observed effect ; must be controlled by researchers
43
Directionality problem
Don't know whether X causes Y or if Y causes X or both
44
Third variable problem
Some unidentified variable is responsible for the observed relationship between two variables
45
Independent Variable
Any variable that the researcher intentionally manipulates
46
Conditions
Levels of the IV
47
Dependent variable
Any variable that the researcher measures as an outcome of the study
48
Control group
"No treatment" or neutral condition
49
Treatment/experimental group
what you call the other group when there is a control group
50
Confound
Alternative for relationship between IV and DV
51
Design confound
Mistake the design of the IV, such that second variable varies systematically with the IV
52
Selection effects
Participants in one level of the IV are systematically different from those in the other
53
Between subjects
Different groups of participants are placed into different conditions ; comparing scores from different people
54
Within-subjects
One group of participants completes all conditions ; comparing scores from the same person
55
Posttest-only design
participants are randomly assigned to a condition and tested on dependent variable once
56
Order effects
Exposure to one level of the IV influences responses to next level
57
Counterbalancing
Helps avoid order effect ; present levels of IV in different sequences
58
Time-related confounds: Maturation
Subjects naturally change physiologically or psychologically
between treatment conditions
59
Time-related confounds: History
An outside event occurs between treatment conditions and affects
dependent variable in condition(s) subsequent to event
60
Time-related confounds: Regression to the mean
Extreme scores in first treatment condition statistically likely to
become less extreme in subsequent conditions
61
Time-related confounds: Attrition
Subjects drop out of a study before completing all conditions
62
Time-related confounds: order effects
Experience in first treatment causes a change in subjects that affects performance in subsequent conditions
63
Time-related confounds: Instrumentation
Change in measurement instruments between treatment conditions affects measurement of dependent variable subsequent in instrument change
64
Threats to internal validity: Observer bias
Researchers' expectations influence results
65
Threats to internal validity: demand characteristics
Participants guess study hypothesis and change behavior
66
Threats to internal validity: Placebo effects
Participants improve because they believe they are receiving a valid treatment
67
Double-blind study (Observer bias and demand characteristics)
Neither participants nor researchers now what condition they are in
68
Masked study (Observer bias and demand characteristics)
(participants do not know condition) when double-blind study is not possible
69
Active control group (Placebo effects)
control group given treatment that creates same
expectation of improvement as treatment group
70
Measurement
Process of assigning numbers or categories to individuals in your sample ; measurement creates observable variables from constructs
71
Construct (conceptual definitions: theoretical)
Theoretical variable that cannot be observed directly
72
Observable variable (operational definition: precise)
A quantity or quality that can be observed directly and varies across individuals
73
Self-report
A measure in which participants report on their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors ina survey or interview
74
Behavioral
A measure in which the researcher observes and records some aspect of participants' behavior
75
Physiological
A measure that involves recording a physiological variable (part/aspect of the participant's body)
76
Nominal
Category labels (male/female, etc)
77
Ordinal
Ordered scores (first, second, third, etc)
78
Interval
Equal units (But NO TRUE ZERO)
79
Ratio
Equal units and zero means none
80
Reliability
The extent to which the scores on a measure are consistent across
time, across observers, and across items when a measure has an
element of subjective judgment
81
Validity
Are you really measuring what you think you're measuring?
82
Test-retest reliability
reliability across time ; If you measure the same person again, do they get a similar score?
83
Inter-rater reliability
Reliability across observers ; Do different observers give the same subject the same score?
84
Internal reliability
Reliability across items ; If you ask the same question in a different way, do they give a similar answer?
85
Construct validity
How accurately does the operational definition capture the construct?
86
Face validity
Measurement seems to capture the intended variable. Does the test appear to test what it aims to test?
87
Content validity
Measurement covers all aspects of the construct that it is supposed to measure. Does the test reflect all aspects of the conceptual definition of the construct?
88
Criterion validity
Measurement correlates with a relevant bahavioral outcome
89
Convergent validity
Measurement correlates with measures of similar constructs
90
Discriminant validity
Measurement doesn’t correlate with measures of dissimilar constructs
91
Population
Group of interest
92
Sample
Individuals observed ; should represent the population well
93
Representative sample
A sample that closely resembles the population
94
Biased sample
Some members of the population have a much higher probability of being included in the sample than other members
95
Probability sampling
Every individual in target population is identified; every individual has a known, non-zero chance of being selected; Selection is random, based on probabilities of being selected
96
Simple random sampling (Probability Sampling)
Probability sampling in which every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected
97
Systematic sampling (Probability Sampling)
Order all individuals ina population, pick a random starting point, and select each nth individual
98
Cluster sampling (Probability Sampling)
Randomly select pre-existing groups and measure all (or randomly sample) members of each group.
99
Stratified random sampling (Probability sampling)
Purposefully select particular demographic categories, or strata, and then
randomly selects individuals within each of the categories, proportionate to
their membership in the population
100
Non-probability sampling
Not every individual in the population can be identified OR the probability of selection cannot be calculated (or is zero for some individuals) OR the selection process is not random
101
Convenience sampling (Non-probability sampling)
Sampling individuals who are easily accessible
102
Quota sampling (Non-probability sampling)
Similar to stratified random sampling, but selection is not random and all individuals may or may not be identified
103
Snowball sampling (Non-probability sampling)
Asking participants to recruit other participants who are similar to them
