Psychology Exam 2 Flashcards
(124 cards)
1
Q
Learning is:
A
the process of acquiring through experience, new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
2
Q
Associative learning is:
A
learning that certain events occur together
3
Q
Who thought of Classical Conditioning?
A
Ivan Pavlov
4
Q
Stimulus is:
A
is any event or situation that evokes a response
5
Q
Neutral Stimulus:
A
a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
6
Q
Unconditioned Stimulus:
A
a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response
7
Q
Conditioned Stimulus:
A
originally irrelevant stimulus after association with an unconditioned stimulus triggers a conditioned response
8
Q
Acquisition:
A
neutral stimulus + unconditioned stimulus = conditioned response
9
Q
Extinction:
A
diminishing of a conditioned response US does not follow a CS
10
Q
Spontaneous Recovery:
A
reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished CR
11
Q
Generalization:
A
tendency, once a response has been conditioned, to elicit similar responses
12
Q
Discrimination:
A
learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli
13
Q
Who works with Operant Conditioning?
A
B.F. Skinner
14
Q
Operant Conditioning
A
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer, or diminished if followed by a punisher
15
Q
Reinforcement:
A
strengthens a response making it more likely to occur
16
Q
Punishment:
A
weakens a response making it less likely to occur
17
Q
Positive Reinforcement
A
adding something pleasant to increase a behavior
18
Q
Negative Reinforcement
A
removing something to increase behavior
19
Q
Positive punishment
A
add something negative that decreases behavior (speeding ticket)
20
Q
Negative Punishment
A
take something positive away that decreases behavior (taking phone away)
21
Q
Primary Reinforcements
A
satisfy an intrinsic unlearned biological need; food, water, sex
22
Q
Secondary reinforcements
A
not intrinsic and value is learned; money, praise, attention
23
Q
Fixed Ratio
A
every so many; reinforcement after every nth behavior
24
Q
Fixed interval
A
every so often; reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time
25
Variable Ratio
after an unpredictable number
26
Variable Interval
unpredictably often for behavior after a random amount of time
27
Side effects of punishment
increase aggression, passive aggressive behavior, avoidance, modeling
28
Mirroring neurons
frontal lobe neurons that fire similarly when both performing a behavior and watching another perform the behavior
29
Why is observational learning important?
avoids danger, how to think and feel, and how to interact socially.
30
What is Memory?
the persistence of learning over time through storage and retrieval of information
31
What are 3 measures of memory?
1. Recall-Retrieve
2. Recognition-Identify
3. Relearning-Time saved
32
Iconic Memory
visual representation
33
Echoic memory
auditory representation
34
Automatic Processing
visual and auditory representation
35
Effortful processing
space, time, and frequency
36
Encoding
information in
37
Storage
hang onto information
38
Retrieval
get information back out
39
Sensory memory
immediate
40
Short-term memory
few items, relays between sensory and long term memory or forgotten
41
Long-tern memory
information is processed meaningfully
42
Atkinson-shiffrin model
external events > sensory memory > encoding > short term memory > retrieving > long term memory
43
Explicit Memory
declarative; effort, information, facts
44
Implicit Memory
nondeclartive; automatic/unconscious
45
Automatic memory is processed where?
cerebellum and basal ganglia
46
Effortful memory is processed where?
hippocampus and frontal lobes
47
Semantic Memory
facts and general knowledge
48
Episodic Memory
personally experienced events
49
Declarative Memory
things you know that you can tell others; includes episodic and semantic
50
Non declarative Memory
things you know that you can show by doing; includes skill learning, priming, and conditioning
51
Frontal Lobe
explicit memories
52
Hippocampus
Save button
53
Cerebellum
implicit conditioned
54
Basal Ganglia
implicit procedural
55
Amygdala
emotions
56
Chunking
organizing items into familiar or manageable things
57
Mnemonics
memory aides, pictures, acronym
58
Hierarchies
dividing and subdividing concepts
59
Massed practice is NOT effective True or False
True
60
emotions release stress hormones that impact memory
True
61
Priming-Activation
smells, taste, sights, etc
62
Context Dependent
memory better when tested in the same context
63
State-Dependent
recall better in the same state; good or bad events become retrieval cues
64
Mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with ones current good or bad mood
65
Recency Effect
remember last item best right away, but if attention is shifted too soon it will not encode into long term
66
Primacy effect
remember first items the best in a list
67
Anterograde Amnesia
cannot form new memories
68
Retrograde Amnesia
cannot recall past memories
69
what kind of memory do people with amnesia lose?
they lose explicit memory but not implicit
70
Why do we forget?
encoding failure, storage decay, retrieval failure
71
Proactive Interference
old learning disrupts new
72
Retroactive Interference
new learning disrupts old
73
Motivated Forgetting
repression of neutral events successful, but rarely emotional events
74
Misinformation effect-misleading
information can mislead our memories
75
source amnesia
inaccurately recall how we learned something
76
false memories
fill in gaps, influenced by questions or stories
77
Cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
78
Concepts
help to simplify thinking through mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
79
Prototype
placing an item in a category, memory gradually shifts it toward a category
80
Algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem
81
Heuristic
a simpler strategy that is usually speedier than an algorithm but is also more error prone
82
Insight
sudden flash of inspiration that solves a problem
83
Confirmation Bias
predisposes us to verify rather than challenge our preconceptions
84
Fixation
mental set, may prevent us from taking the fresh perspective that would lead to a solution
85
Availability Heuristics
can distort judgment by estimating event likelihood based on memory availability
86
Why we fear the wrong things?
ancestral history has prepared us to fear, what we cannot control, what is immediate, and what is most readily available in memory
87
Overconfidence
the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge and judgment
88
Belief Perseverance
when we cling to beliefs and ignore evidence that proves these are wrong
89
Framing
the way we present an issue, sways our decisions and judgments
90
What is intuition?
analysis, adaptive, enables quick reactions, flows from unconscious processing
91
Creativity
is the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
92
What is creativity supported by?
Aptitude, intelligence, working memory
93
Divergent Thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions
94
Convergent thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
95
Who is Robert Sternberg
5 components of creativity,
1. expertise
2. imaginative thinking skills
3. intrinsic motivation
4. a venturesome personally
5. a creative environment
96
Language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
97
Phonemes
small distinctive sound units in language
98
Morphemes
smallest language units that carry meaning
99
Grammar
system of rules that enables humans to communicate with one another
100
Semantics
how we derive meaning from sounds
101
Syntax
how we order words into sentences
102
Receptive Language
Infants' ability to understand what is sald to them begins around 4 months.
103
Productive Language
Infants' ability lo produce words begins around 10 months.
104
Childhood
seems to represent a critical period for mastering certain aspects of language
105
Intelligence
the potential to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new solutions
106
Charles Spearmen
humans have one general intelligence that is at the heart of everything a person doe
107
Gardners Eight Multiple Intelligences
Intelligence consists of multiple abilities that come in different packages.
108
Sternberg’s Three Intelligences
Analytical, Creative, and Practical
109
Analytical intelligence
(school smarts: traditional academic problem solving)
110
Creative intelligence
(trailblazing smarts: ability to generate novel ideas)
111
Practical intelligence
(street smarts: skill at handling everyday tasks)
112
Emotional intelligence
The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.
113
Aphasia
an impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area or Wernicke’s area
114
Damage to Broca’s area impairs?
speaking
115
Damage to Wernicks area impairs?
understanding
116
Intelligence test
method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others using numerical scores
117
Aptitude tests
designed to predict a persons future performance
118
Achievement tests
designed to assess what a person has learned
119
Alfred Binet
predicting school achievement, measured each child’s mental age and tested how they succeed
120
standardization
defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group
121
reliability
extent to which a test yields consistent results
122
Validity
extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
123
content validity
extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
124
predictive validity
success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict
