Psychology Final Exam Flashcards
(133 cards)
1
Q
Motivation
A
Biological, social, cognitive or emotional forces that activate and direct behavior
2
Q
Emotion
A
a psychological state involving subjective experience, psychological response or behavioral/expressive response
3
Q
What are the three basic characteristics associated with emotion?
A
- Activation (start of a behavior)
- Persistence (pull that makes a behavior reoccur)
- Intensity (vigor in which a behavior is presented
4
Q
What are the theories of motivation?
A
Incentive, instinct, drive, humanistic and arousal
5
Q
Instinct Theories
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People are motivated to engage in certain behaviors because of evolutionary programming
6
Q
Drive Theories
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Behavior is motivated by a desire to reduce an internal tension caused by an unmet biological need
7
Q
Incentive Theories
A
behavior is motivated by a “pull” of external goals such as rewards, money or recognition
8
Q
Arousal Theories
A
When arousal is too high, we seek to reduce it. When arousal is too low (boredom) we seek to increase it.
9
Q
Humanistic Theory
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Emphasized the importance of psychological and cognitive factors in motivation. People are motivated to realize their personal potential
- Rodgers and Maslow
10
Q
Hierarchy Of Needs
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Maslow’s division of motivation into levels that progress from basic physical needs to psychological needs to self fulfillment needs
11
Q
Critiques of Self Actualization
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- Vague and almost impossible to present in a way that can be scientifically tested
- Most people never achieve self actualization
12
Q
Hunger
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A biological motive
13
Q
Eating Behavior
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Complex interaction of biological, social and psychological factors
14
Q
Set Point Theory
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Our bodies have a set weight that it defends through regulating hunger, energy expenditure, metabolism, etc.
15
Q
Obesity
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BMI equal to or greater than 30.0
16
Q
Overweight
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BMI between 25 and 29.9
17
Q
Factors involved in becoming overweight
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Positive incentive value, BMR, too little sleep, environment, etc.
18
Q
Factors involved in becoming obese
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BMR, environment, genetics, metabolism, eating habits
19
Q
6 basic emotions
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Fear, anger, disgust, surprise, happiness, sadness
20
Q
Mood
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Milder emotional state that is more general
21
Q
Neuroscience of emotion
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Emotions are associated with distinct patterns of responses by the sympathetic nervous system
22
Q
Two Factor theory of Emotion
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emotion is the interaction between physiological arousal and the cognitive label we apply to explain arousal
23
Q
Developmental Psychology
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the study of how people change over a lifetime
24
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Developmental Psychologists
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investigate the influence of biological, social, environmental, cultural and behavioral factors on development at every stage of life
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Longitudinal Design
studying one person at multiple stages of life
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Cross Sectional Design
Research design in which several different age people are compared
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Zygote
single cell formed at conception (egg + sperm)
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Prenatal Development
conception, zygote, germinal period, embryonic period, fetal period
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Teratogens
harmful agents or substances that can cause malfunctions or defects in an embryo or fetus
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Prenatal Brain Development
begins as a fluid filled neural tube; divides into three bulges which become the mid, fore and hindbrains; stem cells divide and some become glial cells
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Newborn Reflexes
inborn automatic response to a particular form of stimulation that all healthy babies are born with
- rooting, sucking, babinski, and grasping
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Importance of attachment
Secure attachment in infancy forms the basis for emotional bonds later in childhood
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Securely Attached
infants explore the room when the mother is present; explore less when the mother is not present. Show happiness when mother returns
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Insecurely Attached
infant does not explore the room even when the mother is present
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Language Development
Noam Chomsky
- Infant Direct speech is a beneficial way for children to learn language because of the short sentences, distinct pronunciation and simple vocabulary
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Cognitive Development
Jean Piget
- Believes children actively try to make sense of their environment rather than passively soaking up info
- 4 distinct Cognitive Stages: Sensorimotor, pre operational, concrete operational, formal operational
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Sensorimotor
Birth to 2 years
- Mainly use senses and motor actions to make sense of environment
- Child manipulates but does not reason
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Object Permanence
understanding that objects exist independently of one's actions or perceptions of them
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Preoperational
2-7 years
- Child's increasing capacity for thought is delightfully reflected in symbolic play and deferred imitation
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Concrete Operational
7 to adolescence
- Understanding mental operations leading to increasingly logical thought , using classification and categorization
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Formal Operational
12-Adulthood
- logical thinking develops and child becomes capable of applying logical thinking to hypothetical situations and abstract concepts
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Adolescence
Transition between late childhood and early adulthood when sexual maturity is reached
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Social Development in Adolescence
parent child relationships are mostly good; friends become more of an influence; romantic relationships may be positive or negative on social development
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Kohlberg
Moral Development
-
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Adulthood Development
Physical Strength peaks in early adulthood; by middle adulthood, physical and mental strengths decline; by late adulthood, physical and mental strengths decline faster
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Activity Theory Of Aging
life satisfaction is highest when people maintain the level of activity they had in previous years
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Kubler-Ross' Stages of Dying
denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance
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Personality
individual's unique and relatively consistent way of thinking, feeling and behaving
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Personality Theory
Describes and explains why people are similar, different and why every individual is unique (tries to explain the whole person)
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What are the four major theoretical perspectives on personality?
Psychoanalytic, humanistic, trait, and social cognitive
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Psychoanalytic Perspective
Emphasized unconscious motivation - the main cause of behavior lies buried in the unconscious. FREUD
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Structure Of Personality (according to Freud)
The unconscious (ID), preconscious (superego) and conscious (ego)
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ID
instinctual drives present at birth that are immune to logic and operates according to a pleasure principle
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Superego
internal of parental and societies standards
- responsible for guilt; this is your conscious
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Ego
partly conscious rational component of personality that develops out of the id (but understands reality + logic)
- in touch with the demands of the world
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Reality Principle
Ability to postpone gratification in accordance to the demands of the external world
- ability to repress desires that can not be met in an acceptable manner
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Freud's 5 Psychosexual Stages
foundations of adult personality are determined by first 5 years of life
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Psychosexual Stages Numbered
1. Oral - mouth is focus of pleasure
2. Anal - toilet training
3. Phallic- Genitals are focus of pleasure
4. Latency - sexual impulses repressed
5. Genital - physical sexual maturity
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The Oedipus Complex
Child's unconscious sexual desire for the opposite sex parent, usually accompanied by hostile feelings toward the same sex parent
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Neo-Freudians
Agreed with Freud on the fact that early life experiences are important and unconscious, but developed their own theories
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3 points Neo-Freudians agreed with
1. behavior was primarily motivated by sexual urges
2. personality is fundamentally determined by early childhood experiences
3. Freuds pessimistic view of human nature and society
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Carl Jung
Created concept of collective unconscious
- people are motivated by more general psychic energy to achieve growth
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Karen Horney
Created concept of "womb envy"
- proposed women do not envy a mans penis but men envy a women's child bearing capacity
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Alfred Adler
Created concept of inferiority
- most fundamental human motive is striving for superiority that arises from universal feelings of inferiority experienced during childhood
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Strengths of Freuds Psychoanalytic Theory
Unconscious nature of mental life
- critical influence on early experiences on intrapersonal relationships and psychological development
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Limitations of Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory
- inadequacy of evidence
- sexism
- problems with testability
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Humanistic Perspective
Emphasizes free will, self awareness, and psychological growth. People are inherently good and able to reach potential and healthy personal development
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Carl Rodgers
Most basic human motive is actualizing tendency
- people are motivated in accordance with self concept
- reward can be conditional or unconditional
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Strengths of Humanistic Perspective
Made contributions to psychotherapy, counseling, education, parenting, etc.
- subjective experience and self concept has become widely accepted
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Limitations of Humanistic Perspective
- difficult to test and validate
- based on physiological assumptions rather than empirical research
- too optimistic, minimizing some destructive aspects of human nature
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Social Cognitive Perspective
Emphasizes conscious, self regulated behavior rather than unconscious mental influences and instinctual drives
- sense of self can vary, depending on thoughts, feelings and behaviors in a given situation
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Albert Bandura
Believed human behavior and personality are caused by the interaction of behavioral, cognitive and environmental factors.
- social cognitive theory
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Strengths of Social Cognitive Perspective
- well grounded in empirical lab research
- major impact in study of personality
- emphasizes self regulation of behavior
- places responsibility of behavior on the person
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Limitations of Social Cognitive Perspective
Lab experiences simple and may not reflect the complexity of human interactions in the real world
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Trait
Formally defined as relatively stable, enduring predisposition to behave in a certain way
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Trait Theorists
Focus on identifying, describing and measuring individual differences in behavioral predispositions
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Raymond Cattell
proposed 16 personality factors
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Hans Eyesneck
Proposed 3 categories of traits
1. introversion-extroversion
2. neuroticism-stability
- Psychoticism
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McCrae and Costa
five factor model
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Behavior Genetics
studies the effects of genes and heredity on behavior
- studied by comparing subjects and their degree of genetic relatedness (twin studies)
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Strengths of Trait Perspective
Psychologists generally agree that people can be described and compared in terms of basic personality traits
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Limitations of Trait Perspective
human personality not really explained; explanation of how or why individual differences develop not explained; failure to address other important personality issues
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Psychological Tests
Assesses a person's abilities, aptitudes, interests or personality on the basis of a systematically obtained sample of behavior
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Any psychological test is useful if:
1. it accurately and consistently reflects a person's characteristics on some dimension
2. it predicts the person's future psychological behavior
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Projective Tests
type of personality test that involves a person's interpreting an ambiguous image: used to assess unconscious motives, conflicts psychological defenses and personality traits
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Rorsach Inkblot Tests
projective test that uses 10 inkblots as the ambiguous stimuli
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Strengths of Perspective Tests
Provision of qualitative information about individual's psychological functioning
Information can facilitate psychotherapy
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Limitations of Perspective Tests
Influence of testing situation or examiner's behavior
Highly subjective scoring
Failure to produce consistent results
Poor at predicting future behavior
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Strengths of Self Report Inventories
-standardization
-use of established norms
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Limitations of Self Report Inventories
Deliberate deception
- set way responding
- inaccuracy in self behavior judgement
91
Social Psychology
Investigation of how thoughts, feelings, and behavior are influenced by the presence of other people and by the social and physical environment
92
Sense of Self
Unique sense of identity influenced by social, cultural and psychological experiences
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What are the two key research areas of social psychology?
Social cognition and social influence
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Social Cognition
refers to how we form impressions of other people, how we interpret the meaning of other people's behavior and how our behavior is influenced by our attitudes
95
Social Influence
focuses on how our behavior is affected by other people and by situational factors
96
Person Perception
Mental process we use to form judgements about other people
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4 Key Components of Person Perception
1. characteristics of the person you are trying to evaluate
2. your own self perception
3. your goals in the situation
4. Specific situation in which the process occurs
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Social Categorization
Mental Process of categorizing people into groups (or social categories) on the basis of their shared characteristics
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Implicit Personality Theory
network of assumptions/beliefs about relationships among people, traits and behaviors
100
Attractiveness Schema
Attractive people are percieved as more intelligent, happier and better adjusted. They tend to be higher in self esteem, intelligence, and other desirable personality traits than people of more average appearance
- likely due to attention
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Attribution
Process of inferring the causes of people's behavior, including one's own
- it is an explanation given for a particular behavior
102
Fundamental Attribution Error
Tendency to spontaneously attribute the behavior of others to internal, personal characteristics, while ignoring or underestimating the role of external, situational factors
-ex. calling someone an idiot while driving
103
Actor Observer Bias
Tendency to attribute our own behavior to external, situational characteristics, while ignoring/underestimating the effects of internal, personal factors
- when you pull in front of someone and try to justify your behavior
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Blaming The Victim
Tendency to blame an innocent victim of misfortune for having somehow caused the problem or for not having taken steps to avoid or prevent it
105
Hindsight Bias
Tendency to overestimate our ability to predict the outcome of an event
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Components of Attitude
affective, behavioral, cognitive
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Affective (attitude)
feelings or emotions about topic
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Behavior (attitude)
your actions regarding the topic or situation
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Cognitive (attitude)
thoughts and conclusions about given topic or situations
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Prejudice
Negative attitude toward people who belong to a specific group
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Stereotypes
typically include qualities that are unrelated to the objective criteria that define a given category
- based on the assumption that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group
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In group
The social group to which one belongs
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In Group Bias
tendency to make favorable attributions to members of your in group
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Out Group
the social group to which one does not belong
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Out Group Homogeneity Effect
Tendency to see members of the out group as more similar to one another
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Stereotype Problems
- Negatively impacts performance
- hard to shake
- can become expectations applied to all members of a group
- misleading and damaging
- etc.
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Implicit Attitudes
Evaluations that are automatic, unintentional and difficult to control
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Robbers Cave Experiment
Teaches a cooperative goal can bring two hostile groups together, thus reducing the competition and enhancing cooperation
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Conformity
Adjusting opinions, judgment, or behavior so that it matches that of other people, or the norms of a social group or situation
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Solomon Asch's Experiment
-Individuals tend to conform to majority when they rely less on their experience and insight
-Dominance of conformity can cause people to make decisions that go against their values
- used a standard line task
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Normative Social Influence
Subjects desired to be linked and accepted by the group
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Informative Social Influence
Subjects reported having doubted their own perceptual abilities, which led to their conformance
123
You are more likely to conform to social group norms when:
- facing a unanimous grip of at least 4-5 people
- giving your response in front of a group
- finding the task to be ambiguous or difficult
- doubting your abilities or knowledge in the situation
- Strongly attached to a group and want to be a member of it
124
Stanley Milgram
Obedience is the performance of a behavior in response to a direct command
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Factors that Influence Obedience
- a previously well established framework to obey
- the situation, or context, in which the obedience occurred
- the gradual, repetitive escalation of the task
- experimenters behavior and reassurance
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Factors that Undermine Obedience
people are more likely to muster up the courage to defy an authority when they saw others do it
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Prosocial Behavior
any behavior that helps another, whether the underlying motive is self serving or selfless
128
Altruism
Helping another person with no expectation of personal reward or benefit
129
Bystander Effect
a phenomenon in which the greater number of people present, the less likely the person will help someone in distress
130
Two Reasons for bystander effect:
- diffusion of responsibility
- motivation to some extent by desire to behave in socially acceptable way and appear correct
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Normative Social Influence
Conforming because they ant to be a part of the group
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Informative Social Influence
conforming because they are not confident with their answers
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James-Lange Theory
