QUIZ 1 Flashcards
1
Q
A texture of a rock that has discrete fragments and particles.
A
Clastic
2
Q
Sediments are transformed into solid rock by compaction and cementation.
A
LIthification
3
Q
Development of more stable minerals from less stable ones.
A
Recrystallization
4
Q
A form of banded chert.
A
Agate
5
Q
Composed of sand-sized particles, it forms in a variety of environments and is a rock in which quartz is the predominant mineral.
A
Sandstone
6
Q
This important category of igneous rocks is often associated with volcanic activity that is typically confined to the seaward margins of the continents and on volcanic island arcs such as the Aleutian chain.
A
Andesitic
7
Q
Alternate term for extrusive igneous rock
A
Volcanic rocks
8
Q
Alternate term for intrusive igneous rock
A
Plutonic rocks
9
Q
Also known as Plutonic rocks
A
Intrusive Igneous rocks
10
Q
Also known as Volcanic rocks
A
Extrusive igneous rocks
11
Q
Rocks that are formed when magma intrudes into bedrock and slowly cools.
A
Intrusive Igneous rocks
12
Q
If molten rock containing some large crystals moves to a different environment the remaining liquid portion of the lava cools more quickly. The resulting rock, which has large crystals embedded in a matrix of smaller crystals, is said to have a __________.
A
Porphyritic texture
13
Q
The year that the theory of tectonic plates was published
A
1915
14
Q
Solid part of lower mantle
A
Mesosphere
15
Q
Part of the earth which generates magnetic field
A
Core
16
Q
Specific place at which ultramafic rock is found
A
Upper mantle
17
Q
Average elevation (in feet) of the continents in relation to the ocean floor
A
15,250 ft
18
Q
Ocean floor elevation (in feet) in relation to MSL (mean sea level)
A
12,500 ft
19
Q
What is the difference between silica and silicon?
A
Silicon is an element, Silica is a compound of Silicon and Oxygen
20
Q
Oceanic rock made of magnesium and iron
A
mafic; ma - magnesium; fe - iron
21
Q
Idea that continents moved freely over the earth’s surface, changing their positions relative to one another
A
Continental Drift
22
Q
Two plates move apart, resulting in upwelling of material from mantle to create new seafloor
A
divergent
23
Q
two plates move towards each other causing destruction of ocean floor
A
convergent
24
Q
plates move sideways past each other; no creation or destruction of lithosophere, results in small to large earthquake
A
transform
25
Studies of the arrangements of electrons show that they move about the nucleus in regions called ____, each with an associated energy level
principal shells
26
Order of strength of bonds from weakest to strongest
Van der Waals, Metallic, Ionic, Covalent
27
Bonding through electron transfer
Ionic Bonding
28
Bonding through electron sharing
Covalent Bonding
29
Weak bonding between sheets
Van der Waals Bonding
30
Electrons move freely throughout the crystal, causing high conductivity and malleability
Metallic Bonding
31
A variety of limestone called ____ forms from the cementation of shells and shell fragments that accumulated on the shallow sea floor near shore
Coquina
32
____ is a light-colored, porous, very fine-grained variety of bioclastic limestone that forms from the seafloor accumulation of microscopic marine organisms that drift near the sea surface
Chalk
33
Type of inorganic limestone commonly seen in caves
Travertine (stalactites and stalagmites)
34
An ____ limestone formed by the cementation of ____ (small spheres)
Oolithic; ooids
35
forms from limestone; water moving through the limestone causes the calcium in calcite to be dissolved and replaced by magnesium
Dolostone
36
Hard, compact, fine-grained sedimentary rock formed almost entirely of silica forms from the accumulation of delicate, glass-like shells of microscopic marine organisms on the sea floor
Chert
37
How do you differentiate limestone and dolostone?
Dropping acid on limestone causes fizzing whereas dolostone doesn't visibly react to the acid.
38
Evaporation triggers deposition of chemical precipitates
Evaporites
39
Prior to the precipitates, it needs ____ to trigger deposition of chemical precipitates
Evaporation
40
____ is buried in a swamp environment and is transformed into ____ (soft brown coal). Further burial forms ____, the source of coal energy. Metamorphism makes _____.
1. Peat
2. Lignite
3. Bituminous coal
4. Anthracite coal
41
Discrete fragments and particles; all detrital rocks have a ____
Clastic texture
42
Pattern of interlocking crystals; may resemble an igneous rock
Nonclastic texture
43
What are the 12 common minerals found in the continental crust?
1. Iron
2. Aluminum
3. Magnesium
4. Calcium
5. Sodium
6. Silicon
7. Oxygen
8. Potassium
9-12. Others
44
What are the various silicate structures?
1. Isolated Silicate Structure
2. Single-Chain Silicates
3. Double-Chain Silicates
4. Sheet Silicates
5. Framework Silicates
45
Structured so that none of the oxygen atoms are shared by tetrahedra
Isolated Silicate Structure/Single Tetrahedra
46
____ is among Earth's most abundant mineral groups, a very common constituent of igneous rocks in oceanic crust and upper part of the mantle (Isolated Silicate, Single Tetrahedra)
Olivine
47
A ____ forms when two of a tetrahedron's oxygen atoms are shared with adjacent tetrahedra to form a chain
Single-chain silicate structure
48
____ is the most common pyroxene and an essential mineral in mafic igneous rocks, which is why it is opaque and black
Augite
49
Two adjacent single chains sharing oxygen atoms
Double-chain silicate
50
The ____ is composed of double-chain silicates
Amphibole
51
The most common of the amphiboles is called ____. It is a common constituent of igneous and metamorphic rocks
Hornblende
52
Fibrous aggregates of certain chain silicates are called _____. _____ does not ignite or melt in fire.
Asbestos
53
In a _____, each tetrahedron shares three oxygen atoms to form a sheet.
Sheet-silicate structure
54
Sheet silicates are soft and flaky because of the ______ bonds between sheets
Van der Waals
55
The ____ minerals are distinguished by their perfect basal cleavage, meaning they are easily split into thin, often transparent sheets
Mica
56
The ____ minerals represent an important sub-group of sheet silicates.
Clay
57
The term clay is used to denote particular mineralogical properties, in addition to a _____. It has the tendency to develop ____ when mixed with water.
Small particle size; plasticity
58
When you place a load on _____, it will not compress because of its sheet structure, a.k.a. it exhibits low compressibility.
Kaolinite
59
_____ can swell significantly by the absorption of water because its sides are exposed from fandom orientation.
Montmorillonite/Smectite
60
_____ exhibits considerable potential for volume change
Expansive Clay
61
When all four oxygen ions are shared by adjacent tetrahedra, it makes a 3D structure which is the strongest among all the silicate structures. An example of which is feldspar and quartz.
Framework silicates
62
_____ accounts for about 60 percent of all minerals in the continental crust, and crystallize from magma.
Feldspar
63
____ is pure SiO2 and is the second most abundant mineral in the earth's continental crust, after feldspar; is found in many colors.
Quartz
64
Mineral groups:
1. ____
Non-silicate minerals:
2. ____
3. ____
1. Silicate materials
2. Carbonate, phosphate, sulfate materials
3. Ore materials, oxides, sulfide materials
65
Minerals with same chemical composition but different structures
Polymorphs/Polymorphism
66
Although ____ is the most conspicuous characteristic of any mineral, it is a diagnostic property of only a few minerals.
Color
67
A mineral's ____ is obtained by rubbing it across a plate of unglazed porcelain and observing the color of the mark it leaves
Streak
68
Scale for measuring a mineral's relative hardness
Mohs scale of hardness
69
The appearance of light reflected from the surface of a mineral
Luster
70
1. ___, very shiny and reflective
2. ___, weathered and exposed to the atmosphere
3. ___, dull appearance, vitreous/glassy
1. Metallic
2. Submetallic
3. Nonmetallic
71
The ____ of a mineral is a set of forces with a definite geometric relationship to one another
External Crystal Form
72
A _____ is a breakage surface, whereas a _____ is a growth surface.
1. Cleavage surface
2. Crystal surface
73
A mineral tends to break along the ____ surface because the atom bonds are weaker there.
Cleavage
74
____ is an uncommon substance breakage not defined by the cleavage surface.
Fracture
75
____ is the ratio of a mass of a substance to the mass of an equal volume of water.
Density
76
____ form when magma erupts at the surface and rapidly cools
Extrusive igneous rocks
77
The large crystals in porphyritic rocks are referred to as ___, whereas the matrix of smaller crystals is called ____. A rock with a porphyritic texture is termed a ____.
1. Phenocrysts
2. Groundmass
3. Porphyry
78
The rapid cooling of molten rock from volcanic eruptions causes a ____, which signifies how the ions in the mineral didn't have enough time to organize.
Glassy Texture
79
Molten rock containing large crystals moves into a different environment (from extrusive to intrusive or vise versa), making minerals with a _______
Porphyritic Texture
80
Large masses of magma slowly crystallize at great depths, forming rocks with a coarse-grained texture described as ____.
Phaneritic
81
Transported sediment as solid particles; fragments of preexisting rocks.
Detrital Rocks
82
Igneous rocks that form at the surface or as small intrusive masses within the upper crust where cooling is rapid
Aphanitic
83
Common features of many extrusive rocks are the voids left by gas bubbles that escape as lava solidifies. These nearly spherical openings are called ____, and the rocks containing them are said to have a ______.
1. Vesicles
2. Vesicular Texture
84
Igneous rocks composed of rock fragments from ejected particles from explosive volcanic eruptions have a _____ or ______.
The ejected particles are fine ash, molten blobs, or large angular blocks torn from walls of a vent during an eruption
Pyroclastic or fragmental texture
85
The various textures of igneous rocks are as follows:
1. ___ (course-grained)
2. ___ (fine-grained)
3. ___ (two distinct grain sizes)
4. ___
5. ___ (contains voids)
6. ___ (fragmental)
1. Phaneritic
2. Aphanitic
3. Porphyritic
4. Glassy
5. Vesicular
6. Pyroclastic
86
___ pertains to the chemical, physical, and biological changes that take place after sediments are deposited.
Diagenesis
dia = change
genesis = origin
87
Natural cements include ___, ___, and ___.
calcite, silica, and iron oxide
88
____ requires precipitation of cement to bind sediment together to form a rock.
Cementation
89
Between compaction and cementation, minerals formed through ____ have a higher capacity to carry load.
Cementation wherein the materials are bonded together
90
Sediment that was once in solution
Chemical sedimentary rocks
91
Formed from the carbon-rich remains of organisms
Organic sedimentary rocks
92
Compression: compressed but still has water in the rock
Consolidation: _____
Compressed to the point where the water is squeezed out
93
___ are mud-sized particles in thin layers that are commonly referred to as laminea; has the ability to split into layers (known as ____)
Shale; fissility
94
___ lacks fissility and is composed of ___ particles.
Siltstone; silt-size
95
___ lies in between and breaks into chunks
Mudstone
96
___ consists largely of rounded gravels and often has a similar appearance to concrete
Conglomerate
97
___ is composed mainly of large angular particles and fragments which have not been rounded; younger and hasn't undergone much erosion, hence its non-rounded particles
Breccia
98
A type of chemical sedimentary rock composed of the mineral calcite (cement mineral)
Limestone
99
Rocks that are deeply buried melt to form magma when temperatures are high enough. What happens to rocks deeply buried but not hot enough to melt?
Metamorphism takes place which turn the buried rocks into metamorphic rocks.
100
___ refers to changes to rocks that take place in Earth’s interior. The changes may be new textures, new mineral assemblages, or both.
Metamorphism
101
During metamorphism, transformations occur in the ___ because if it weren't, it would be magma. The resulting rock is called a ____.
1. solid state (meaning the rock does not melt)
2. metamorphic rock
102
Metamorphic rocks are ___, but the materials themselves stay constant, much like a loaf of bread before and after baking.
texturally and compositionally different from its parent material
103
The parent material is forced to adapt to a new environment, causing it to be stable again. Such old minerals recrystallize to new ones that are ___.
at equilibrium within the new environment
104
Metamorphism is the transition from one rock to another through ___. The changes may be new textures, mineral assemblages, or both.
Exposure to certain temperatures and/or pressures.
105
The ____ indicates the temperatures at which the metamorphic rock was formed, ranging from ___, ___, and lastly to ___.
1. Metamorphic grade
2. low-grade, medium-grade, high-grade
106
The main factors which control the characteristics of metamorphic rocks are as follows:
1. ___
2. ___
3. ___
4. ___
1. Composition of parent rock,
2. Temperature and pressure during metamorphism,
3. Tectonic forces, and
4. Fluids, such as water
107
Usually, _____ are added to the rock during metamorphism, except perhaps water. Therefore, the mineral content of the metamorphic rock is controlled by the ___.
1. no new elements or chemical compounds
2, chemical composition of the parent rock
108
Temperature during metamorphism:
Heat, necessary for metamorphic reactions, comes primarily from ___. Usually, the deeper a rock is beneath the surface, ___. The particular temperature for rock at a given depth depends on the ___. Additional heat could be derived from ___.
1. the outward flow of geothermal energy from Earth's deep interior
2. the higher temperatures it has to endure
3. geothermal gradient
4. locally present magma bodies
109
While it is true that the geothermal gradient is dependent on the proportionality between depth and temperature/pressure, it is also ___.
dependent on what happens at the surface.
110
A mineral is said to be stable if ___.
given enough time, it does not react with another substance or convert to a new mineral or substance.
111
Any mineral is stable only within a ___ which can indicate the temperature of metamorphism in which the rock was in. Putting a stable rock in a different environment would ___.
1. Stability temperature range
2. Force it to adapt over time through undergoing metamorphism
112
How does metamorphism occur?
A parent rock (from either older metamorphic rock, igneous, or sedimentary rock) is exposed to a different environment with different temperatures and pressures which, while not enough to melt the rock, is enough to force it to stabilize through the process of metamorphism.
113
Where does heat used for metamorphism come from?
It comes from the outward flow of geothermal energy from the earth's deep interior, meaning that the deeper the rock, the hotter it will be.
114
The particular temperature for rock at a given depth depends on ___
the local geothermal gradient which depends on nearby magma bodies or convergence between oceanic and continental crusts.
115
Minerals stable at higher temperatures tend to be ___. As the temperature increases, ___.
1. Less dense than its polymorphs which are stable at lower temperatures
2. The atoms vibrate more, causing the lower density.
116
Why are minerals less dense at higher temperatures?
This is because atoms vibrate more at higher temperatures, causing the mineral's crystal structure to be less dense to accommodate the vibration of atoms.
117
The upper limit on temperature in metamorphism overlaps the temperature of partial melting of a rock. If partial melting takes place, ___.
The part that melts becomes a magma while the solid residue remains a metamorphic rock.
118
___ is the rate at which temperature increases with increasing depth beneath the surface
Geothermal gradient
119
Pressure applied equally on all surfaces of a substance as a result of burial or submergence
Confining pressure
120
An object buried deeply within Earth's crust is compressed by strong confining pressure called ___ which forces grains closer together and eliminates pore space.
lithostatic pressure
121
What does lithostatic pressure do?
Lithostatic pressure forces grains of an object buried deeply within the crust closer together and eliminates its pore space.
122
For metamorphism, pressure is usually given in __, and is the pressure equivalent of ___.
1. Kilobars
2. a thousand times the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level
123
The pressure gradient, the increase in lithostatic pressure with depth, is approximately ___.
1 kilobar per each 3.3 kilometers of burial in crustal rock
124
What will happen to new mineral crystallized under high pressure?
They tend to occupy less space than its polymorphs, and is denser because the pressure forces atoms closer together into a more closely packed crystal structure.
125
What if pressure and temperature both increase, as is commonly the case with increasing depth into the Earth?
If the effect of temperature is greater than that of pressure, the new mineral will be less dense. If the pressure instead is higher, then it would be more dense as its effects overpower that of temperature
126
If the forces on a body are stronger or weaker in different directions, a body is subjected to ___.
Differential stress
127
Differential stress can be viewed as a dough ball, wherein ___. (top hand, bottom hand explanation)
pressing its top and bottom would simulate compressive stress, and the dough ball expanding at the sides would be a reaction to stress not being as strong there.
128
Differential stress is also caused by ___, which causes parts of a body to move/slide against each other across a plane.
shearing; stress parallel to the direction of compressive stress (if the compressive stress is downward/upward, the shearing stress goes right/left)
129
Dynamic metamorphism occurs when ___.
Rocks in contact along a fault are broken and crushed when movement takes place, undergoing shearing.
130
Under high pressure, water ___.
Moves between grains, dissolves ions from a mineral, and then carries the ions elsewhere in the rock where they can react with the ions of another mineral.
131
Hot, chemically active fluids enhance metamorphism by ___.
dissolving and transporting ions from one part of the crystal structure to another, facilitating the process of recrystallization.
132
Fluids such as water can be found in ___, ___, and ___
1. Pore spaces of sedimentary rocks
2. Fractures in igneous rocks, and
3. Hydrated minerals such as clays and micas
133
Differential stress has a very important influence on the texture of a metamorphic rock because ___.
It forces the constituents of the rock to become parallel to one another.
134
When the rock has a planar texture, it is said to be ___.
Foliated
135
If a platy mineral (such as mica) is crystallizing within a rock undergoing differential stress, ___.
the mineral grows in such a way that it remains parallel to the direction of shearing and perpendicular to the direction of compressive stress.
136
The variations of foliation are as follows:
1. ___
2. ___
3. ___
1. slaty
2. schistose
3. gneissic
137
(texture) If the rock splits easily along nearly flat and parallel planes, indicating that preexisting, microscopic, platy minerals were realigned during metamorphism, we say the rock is ___, or that it possesses ___.
slaty; slaty cleavage
138
If visible minerals that are platy/needle-shaped have grown parallel to a plane due to differential stress, the rock is ___.
schistose or has schistose texture
139
If the rock became very ductile and the new minerals separated into distinct (light and dark) layers or lenses, the rock has a layered or ___.
gneissic texture
140
What is the correct sequence of the following rocks formed when shale undergoes prograde metamorphism? (low-grade to high-grade)
Slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss
141
What is the texture of metamorphic rock formed from contact metamorphism?
Non-foliated texture
142
The resulting rock when limestone undergoes metamorphism
Marble
143
A process in which some rocks can be attributed exclusively to shearing during faulting.
Dynamic Metamorphism
144
It is very hard and resistant, and can be taxing on construction equipment.
Quartzite
145
Aided by small amounts of acid in the water.
Dissolution
146
The reaction of any substance with water. Hydrogen ions attack and replace other ions.
Hydrolysis
147
Mechanical weathering can increase the ___ of a rock, accelerating the rate of chemical weathering
surface area
148
Occurs when water fills joints (cracks) in a rock and then freezes. The expanding ice wedges the rock.
Frost wedging
149
Physical disintegration or process in which the rock breaks up but there is no change in the composition.
Mechanical weathering
150
It is a result of differential stress.
Foliation
151
Rocks that split into thin slabs when hit with a hammer exhibit ___, which develops in various metamorphic rocks but is best displayed in slates that exhibit an excellent splitting property called ___.
1. Rock cleavage
2. Slaty cleavage
152
Because slate splits easily, it is used for building materials such as ___ and ___, as well as ___.
1. roof tiles
2. floor tiles
3. billiard table surfaces
153
At higher temperatures and pressures, the minute mica and chlorite flakes in slate begin to recrystallize into larger muscovite and biotite crystals. When these platy materials are large enough to be discernible with the unaided eye, they exhibit planar or layered structures called ___.
Schistosity
154
Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks typically develop in environments where ___ and the parent rocks are composed of minerals that exhibit ___, such as ___.
1. deformation is minimal
2. equidimensional crystals
3. quartz or calcite
155
Metamorphic rocks also contain unusually large grains called ___ which are surrounded by a fine-grained matrix of other minerals.
Porphyroblasts
156
A very fine-grained (less than 0.5-millimeter) foliated rock composed mainly of minute chlorite and mica flakes (too small to be visible to the human eye) is termed ___.
Slate
157
Slate may also contain tiny quartz and feldspar crystals which cause it to appear dull and closely resemble ___.
Shale
158
A noteworthy characteristic of slate is its excellent ___, or tendency to break into flat slabs.
rock cleavage
159
Slate is most often generated by the low-grade metamorphism of ___, ___, or ___
Shale, mudstone, or siltstone.
160
___ represents a degree of metamorphism between slate and schist. Its constituent plate minerals are larger than those in slate but not large enough to be readily identifiable with the unaided eye.
Phyllite
161
Phyllite can be easily distinguished from slate through its ___ and ___.
glossy sheen and wavy surface
162
Phyllite exhibits rock cleavage and is composed mainly of ___ of mainly ___, ___, or both.
1. very fine crystals
2. muscovite
3. chlorite
163
Medium- to coarse-grained metamorphic rocks in which platy minerals are dominant are called ___.
Schist
164
A fine-grained nonfoliated metamorphic rock with a variable mineral composition. Its parent rock is shale or other clay-rich rock baked by a hot intruding magma body.
Hornfels
165
When a rock becomes buried to increasingly greater depths, it is subjected to increasingly greater temperatures and pressures and will undergo ___ wherein it recrystallizes into a higher-grade rock.
Prograde metamorphism
166
Types of metamorphism:
1. ___
2. ___
3. ___
1. Contact/thermal metamorphism
2. Regional metamorphism
3. Hydrothermal metamorphism
167
Also known as thermal metamorphism, it occurs when rocks surrounding a molten igneous body are baked. High temperature is the dominant factor.
Contact metamorphism
168
A common, widespread type of metamorphism associated with mountain building wherein large segments of the crust are deformed by convergence of two continental crust plates.
Regional metamorphism
169
A form of metamorphism which occurs when hot, ion-rich water circulates through pore spaces or fractures in rock.
Hydrothermal metamorphism
170
The hot mineral-laden fluids called hydrothermal solutions contribute to metamorphism by ___.
enhancing the recrystallization of existing minerals
171
Metamorphism coupled with the introduction of ions from an external source brought in by water.
Metasomatism
172
Hydrothermal minerals can form in void spaces or between the grains of a host rock. An aggregate of hydrothermal minerals, a ___ may crystallize within a preexisting fracture in a rock to form a vein.
Hydrothermal rock
173
Rocks exposed at Earth's surface are constantly being changed by water, air, varying temperature, and other environmental factors. The processes that affect rock are ___, ___, and ___.
1. weathering
2. erosion
3. transportation
174
The physical breakdown and chemical alteration of rock at or near the earth's surface
Weathering
175
The physical removal of rock particles by mobile agents like water, wind, ice, or gravity
Erosion
176
The movement of eroded particles by agents such as rivers, waves, glaciers, or wind.
Transportation
177
Breaking of rocks into smaller pieces. This is the type of weathering which breaks up rock but doesn't change its composition.
Mechanical weathering
178
The decomposition of rock from exposure to water and atmospheric gases. As rock is decomposed by these agents, new chemical compounds form.
Chemical weathering
179
Mechanical weathering processes:
1. ___
2. ___
Other mechanical weathering processes:
3. ___
4. ___
1. Pressure release
2. Frost action (wedging & heaving)
3. Plant roots growth
4. Extreme changes in temperature
180
Reduction of pressure on a body of rock. It can cause rock to crack as it expands.
Pressure release
181
The removal of the great weight of rock, usually termed ___, allows the rock to expand upward
unloading
182
Cracks called ___ develop parallel to the outer surface of the deep pluton as the outer part of the rock expands more than the inner part.
Sheet joints
183
How are sheet joints formed? hint: deep pluton, uplift, pressure removal
Tectonic forces cause uplift to the deep pluton (very deep intrusive igneous rock) until it is exposed at the surface, causing a removal of pressure on top of the plutonic rock, making sheet joints.
184
Sheet joints do not exist without ___ because of its ___.
Clay; weak sheet silicate structure
185
Why can't sheet joints exist without clay?
This is because sheet joints consist of slabs of rock with clay in between them, and clay has weak sheet silicate structure.
As a result, the formed sheet joints would be weak cleavage surfaces which cause it to break off easily from the main slab. They break off easily due to the clay's cleavage surfaces, not fractures from the slabs themselves.
186
1. The mechanical effect of freezing water on rocks.
2. Expansion of freezing water seeping into cracks pushes rock apart
3. Rock and soil is lifted vertically from expansion during frosting
1. Frost Action
2. Frost wedging
3. Frost heaving
187
Mechanical weathering can accelerate the rate of chemical weathering through ___.
Increasing the surface area of a rock
188
Chemical weathering changes ___, is a ___, and is ___.
Changes composition of rocks, gradual and ongoing process, enhanced by geological agents
189
Dissolution is aided by small amounts of acid in the water. Identify the acid and explain its role in dissolution.
Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid which, though weak, is abundant and allows breakdown of the original composition of a rock.
190
The decomposition of a rock through dissolution is ___.
Gradual and subtle, doesn't change the rock's chemical composition
191
Any reaction when electrons are lost from one element.
An example of which is Oxygen in the atmosphere combining with iron to form Iron oxide, losing electrons in the process.
Oxidation
192
Hydrolysis occurs when ___.
hydrogen ions destroy the arrangement of a rock's atoms and create new minerals in its place.
193
The factors affecting weathering are the following:
1. ___
2. ___
3. ___
4. ___
1. Water availability
2. Climate, rock chemically weathers faster in humid climates than arid ones
3. Temperature, most intense chemical weathering occurs in the tropics
4. Combination of steep slopes, precipitation, freezing and thawing, and flowing glacial ice
194
A natural process which is part of the constant recycling of earth materials we call the rock cycle
Soil erosion
195
Types of erosion:
___ requires water, whereas ___ requires movement of sediments.
1. Splash erosion
2. Sheet erosion
196
The rate of soil erosion is influenced by several factors:
1. ___
2. ___
3. ___
4. ___
1. soil characteristics
2. climate
3. slope
4. vegetation
197
Soil characteristics:
Coarse-grained soils with organic content tend to ___ causing less runoff and less of the soil being eroded.
have larger pore spaces and can absorb more water than fine soils consisting of clay particles.
198
Climate:
The type of rainfall also influences the amount of erosion. What advantages do long periods of gentle rain have over short periods of heavy rain?
A gentle rain over a long period of time produces less splash erosion than a short but heavy rain storm.
Also, more water can infiltrate the soil during gentle rainfall meaning it is less likely for sheet erosion to occur.
199
The shaking or trembling of the ground caused by sudden release of energy stored in the rocks beneath the Earth's surface
Earthquakes
200
Explains how energy is stored in rocks and cause earthquakes.
Elastic Rebound Theory
201
How does the Elastic Rebound Theory work?
1. ___
2. ___
3. ___
4. ___
1. Tectonic forces act on a mass of rock over many decades
2. Rock bends due to parallel plates travelling in opposite directions
3. Excess energy causes the rock to break and release pent-up energy, causing earthquakes
4. Rocks rebound to a new position, causing displacements over time
202
Waves of energy produced by an earthquake
Seismic waves
203
The longer the energy is stored up and maintained without release, ___.
The stronger the earthquake will be.
204
The point within Earth where seismic waves originate.
Focus/hypocenter
205
The point of the Earth's surface directly above the focus
Epicenter
206
Types of seismic waves:
1. ___
2. ___
1. Body waves
2. Surface waves
207
Seismic waves that travel through the Earth's interior, spreading outward from the focus in all directions.
Body waves
208
Seismic waves that travel on Earth's surface away from the epicenter
Surface waves
209
Types of Body waves:
1. ___
2. ___
1. P wave (primary wave)
2. S wave (secondary wave)
210
A longitudinal wave in which rock vibrates back and forth parallel to the direction of wave propagation.
P wave
211
What are the characteristics of the P wave?
1. ___
2. ___
3. ___
1. longitudinal wave vibrating parallel to the direction of wave propagation
2. very fast wave (4 to 7 kilometers per second)
3. the first to arrive at a recording station following an earthquake
212
A type of wave wherein the rock vibrates perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
S wave
213
What are the characteristics of the S wave?
1. ___
2. ___
3. ___
1. vibrates perpendicular to direction of wave propagation
2. travels slower than P wave (2 to 5 kilometers per second)
3. propagated by a shearing motion
214
While both P waves and S waves pass easily through solid rock, an ___ cannot pass through a fluid (gas or liquid).
S wave
215
Types of surface wave
1. ___
2. ___
1. Love waves
2. Rayleigh waves
216
S waves with no vertical displacement; the ground moves side to side in a horizontal plane perpendicular to wave propagation.
Love wave
217
It is generated by tiny particles of rocks thrown out by the volcano. The ash is believed to cause friction that generates an electrical charge.
Volcanic lightning
218
Extrusive rock, surface rock resulting from volcanic activity.
Tephra
219
A volcano is classified as ______ if it erupts lava, rock, gas or ash, or if it shows seismic (earthquake) activity.
Active
220
A very large circular depression in volcanoes and has a diameter greater than 1 kilometer.
Calderas
221
Is wide and somewhat flat, between 2o to 10o. It forms from a quiet eruption. Lava flows out quietly and for great distances
Shield Volcano
222
Seismic waves which behave like rolling ocean waves. Unlike ocean waves, ___ cause the ground to move in an elliptical path opposite to the direction of wave propagation.
Rayleigh waves
223
The instrument used to measure seismic waves.
seismometer
224
A recording device that produces a permanent record of Earth motion detected by a seismometer.
seismograph
225
The paper record of Earth vibration.
seismogram
226
A critical factor in mass wasting
water
227
It is the resistance to movement or deformation of that soil.
shear strength
228
Involves movement along a curved surface, the upper part moving downward while the lower part moves outward.
rotational slide
229
A type of material that is coarse-grained fragments predominant in the soil.
debris
230
Occurs when motion is taking place within a moving mass of unconsolidated or weakly consolidated material.
flow
231
The distance from a measuring station to an earthquake is determined through the ___.
Time interval between the quicker P-wave and the slower S-wave. The smaller the time interval, the closer it is to the measuring station
232
The epicenter of an earthquake is determined through triangulation using ___ stations.
three
233
Where do earthquakes occur and how often?
80% of all earthquakes occur in the ___ belt. most of these result from convergent margin activity.
15% occur in the ___ belt.
The remaining 5% occur in the ___,
More than ___ quakes strong enough to be felt are recorded each year.
1. circum-pacific
2. mediterranean-asiatic
3. interiors of plates and on spreading ridge centers
234
measure of an earthquake's effect on people and buildings.
intensity
235
Intensities are expressed as roman numerals ranging from I to XII on the ___.
modified Mercalli scale
236
The second method of using the size of a quake is to calculate the amount of energy released by the quake using the ___.
Richter scale
237
After measuring a specific wave on a seismograph and correcting for the type of seismograph and for the distance from the quake, scientists can assign a number called the ___.
magnitude
238
____ amplify shaking; buildings built on soft sediment are damaged more than buildings on hard rock.
Unconsolidated materials
239
The trembling and shaking of the land that can cause buildings to vibrate.
Ground motion
240
___ frequency body waves shake low buildings more, whereas ___ frequency surface waves shake high buildings more
1. high
2. low
241
A problem after an earthquake caused by broken gas and water mains, and also fallen electrical wires
Fires
242
How are tsunamis formed?
A large section of sea floor rises/falls during an earthquake, causing the water over the moving area to be lifted or dropped for an instant. This sets up long, low waves that build up to become slower and larger waves at shallower depths.
243
Because of the extremely long wavelength of a tsunami, ___.
The tsunami does not withdraw as quickly, and keeps rising for 5 to 10 minutes before withdrawing.
244
This occurs when a water-saturated soil or sediment turns from a solid to a liquid as a result of earthquake shaking.
Liquefaction
245
Liquefaction causes the soil to lose capacity to support any load, and causes structures built on it to __.
tilt and sink
246
A mountain that forms when molten rock called magma reaches the surface of the earth.
volcano
247
A volcano is ___ if it hasn't erupted for a long time (less than 1 million years) but could erupt again one day.
dormant
248
An ___ volcano will never erupt again.
extinct
249
From 1 to 5, indicate the parts of a volcano.
1. Crater
2. Vent
3. Cone
4. Conduit
5. Magma chamber
250
The opening from which lava flows. Dust, ash, and rock particles can also be thrown out from here.
vent
251
pile of lava, dust, ashes, and rock around the vent. it can be found in different shapes.
cone
