Reproductive System Flashcards
(230 cards)
1
Q
_______ gene functioning can affect health at all stages of development
A
Abnormal
2
Q
Certain ________ act before birth, causing broken bones, dwarfism, or even cancer.
A
single-gene mutations
3
Q
Inherited forms of _____ disease and _______ cancer can appear in early or middle adulthood, which is earlier than multifactorial forms of these conditions
A
heart disease, and breast cancer
4
Q
_________ is a very common single-gene trait that may not become obvious until well into adulthood.
A
Pattern baldness
5
Q
The first cell that leads to development of a new individual forms when a _____ and ______ join
A
sperm and an oocyte (egg)
6
Q
Sperm and oocytes are ______, or sex cells.
A
gametes
7
Q
_______ provide a mechanism for mixing genetic material from
past generations.
A
Gametes
8
Q
It is where the sperm and oocytes are manufactured
A
Gonads
9
Q
Sperm cells develop within a 125-meter-long network of _______, which are packed into paired, oval organs called testes
A
seminiferous tubules
10
Q
male gonads
A
Testes
11
Q
sac outside the abdomen; it keeps the testes cooler than the rest of the body, which is necessary for sperm to develop.
A
Scrotum
12
Q
tightly coiled tube; where sperm cells mature and are stored
A
Epididymis
13
Q
bends behind the bladder and joins the urethra; the tube that carries sperm and urine out through the
penis.
A
Ductus deferens
14
Q
Three glands along the sperm’s path:
A
Prostate gland
Duct from seminal vesicle
Bulbourethral glands
15
Q
produces a thin, milky, alkaline fluid that activates the sperm to swim.
A
Prostate gland
16
Q
secrete fructose (an energy-rich
sugar) and hormonelike prostaglandins, which may stimulate contractions in the female that help sperm and oocyte meet
A
Duct from seminal vesicle
17
Q
size of a pea, join the urethra where it passes through the body wall. They secrete an alkaline mucus
that coats the urethra before sperm are released.
A
Bulbourethral glands
18
Q
During _________, the penis becomes erect so that it can penetrate and deposit sperm in the female reproductive tract
A
sexual arousal
19
Q
At the peak of sexual stimulation, a pleasurable sensation called _______ occurs, accompanied by rhythmic muscular contractions that eject the sperm out the penis.
A
orgasm
20
Q
The discharge of sperm from the penis, called _________, delivers about 200 to 600 million sperm cells.
A
ejaculation
21
Q
The female sex cells develop in paired organs in the abdomen
called ______, which are the female gonads.
A
ovaries
22
Q
Beating ____ sweep the mature oocyte into the fingerlike projections of one of two uterine (fallopian) tubes.
A
cilia
23
Q
The tube carries the oocyte into a muscular, saclike organ called
the ______, or womb.
A
uterus
24
Q
The released oocyte may encounter a sperm, usually occurs in a _________.
A
uterine tube
25
If the sperm enters the oocyte and the DNA of the two gametes
merges into a new nucleus, the result is a _______.
fertilized ovum
26
After about a day, this first cell divides while moving through the
uterine tube. It then settles into the lining of the uterus, where it
may continue to divide and an _______ develops.
embryo
27
________ coordinate the monthly menstrual cycle
Hormones
28
The lower end of the uterus narrows and leads to the ________,
which opens into the tubelike vagina
cervix
29
______ opening is protected on the outside by two pairs of
fleshy folds.
Vaginal opening
30
At the upper juncture of both pairs is the 2-centimeter-long
______, which is anatomically similar to the penis. Rubbing it triggers female orgasm
clitoris
31
_________ control the cycle of oocyte maturation and the
preparation of the uterus to nurture a fertilized ovum.
Hormones
32
Gametes form from special cells, called _________
germline cells
33
Gametes form from special cells, called germline cells, in a type
of cell division called ______
meiosis
34
______ halves the chromosome number
Meiosis
35
________ sculpts the distinctive characteristics of sperm and
oocyte.
Maturation
36
Gametes are ______, which means it contain 23 different chromosomes and still a complete
genome; contains only one of each of chromosome
haploid
37
________ cells contain 23 pairs, or 46 chromosomes
somatic cells
38
have two copies of each chromosome
diploid
39
chromosome pairs; they have the same genes in the same order but may carry different alleles, or
variants, of the same gene.
homologous pair
40
genetically overloaded cell
polypoid
41
_________ mixes up trait combinations
meiosis
42
Meiosis has two divisions, the _________ and _________
reduction division (meiosis I) and
equational division (meiosis II)
43
reduces the number of replicated chromosomes from 46 to 23.
Reduction division (or meiosis I)
44
_________ produces four cells from the two cells formed in the first division by splitting the replicated chromosomes.
Equational division (or meiosis II)
45
_______ occurs after an interphase period when DNA is replicated
meiosis
46
- The replicated chromosomes condense and become visible when stained.
- A spindle forms
- synapsis
- crossing over
- All four chromatids that comprise each homologous chromosome pair are pressed together as exchanges
Prophase I
47
Toward the middle of prophase I, the homologs line up next to one another, gene by gene, in an event called ______.
synapsis
48
the homologs exchange parts in a process called __________
crossing over
49
- The homologs align down the center of the cell.
- Each member of a homolog pair attaches to a spindle fiber at opposite poles.
- Independent assortment occurs
Metaphase I
50
Our 23 chromosome pairs can line up in _____ different ways
(2^23)
51
random alignment of chromosomes
Independent assortment
52
Homologs separate and finish moving to opposite poles by telophase I
Anaphase I
53
- the chromosomes unfold into very thin threads.
- Proteins are manufactured, but DNA is not replicated a second time
Interphase II
54
In ________ the chromosomes are again condensed and visible.
Prophase II
55
In ________, the replicated chromosomes align down the center of the cell.
metaphase II
56
In ________, the centromeres’ part, and the newly formed chromosomes, each now in the unreplicated form, move to opposite poles.
anaphase II
57
In _______, nuclear envelopes form around the four nuclei, which then separate into individual cells.
Telophase II
58
The result of ______ is four haploid cells, each carrying a new assortment of genes and chromosomes that represent a single copy of the genome
meiosis
59
The haploid sperm and oocyte are derived from ________ by meiosis and maturation
diploid germline cells
60
female begins meiosis when she is a _______ and completes only if a sperm fertilizes an oocyte.
fetus
61
the formation of sperm cells
Spermatogenesis
62
Spermatogenesis begins in a diploid stem cell called a ________
spermatogonium
63
divides mitotically, yielding two daughter cells; one specializes into a mature cell and the other remains a stem cell, producing more sperm
Spermatogonium
64
As the spermatogonia mature, they accumulate cytoplasm and replicate their DNA, becoming _________
primary spermatocytes.
65
During meiosis I, each primary spermatocyte divides, forming two equal-sized haploid cells called ____________
secondary spermatocytes
66
In meiosis II, each secondary spermatocyte divides to yield two equal sized _________
spermatids.
67
Each spermatid develops the characteristic _____ or _______
sperm tail, or flagellum.
68
The base of the _____ has many mitochondria, which will split ATP molecules to release energy that will propel the sperm inside the female reproductive tract.
tail
69
After spermatid differentiation, some of the cytoplasm connecting the cells falls away, leaving mature, tadpole-shaped _______ or ______
spermatozoa, or sperm
70
_______ 0.006 cm (0.0023 inch) long, must travel about 18 cm (7 inches) to reach an oocyte.
Sperm
71
Each sperm cell consists of a?
tail, body or midpiece, and a head region.
72
A membrane-covered area on the front end, the______, contains enzymes that help the cell penetrate the protective layers around the oocyte
acrosome
73
Within the large sperm head, ______ is wrapped around proteins
DNA
74
Spermatogonia that are exposed to _______ tend to be so damaged that they never mature into sperm.
toxinsz
75
Dutch histologist ________ presents a once-popular hypothesis that a sperm carries a preformed human called a _________
Niklass Hartsoeker, homunculus.
76
Meiosis in the female, called _________ (egg making), begins with a diploid cell, an _______.
oogenesis, oogonium
77
________ surround each oogonium.
Follicle cells
78
As each oogonium grows, cytoplasm accumulates, DNA replicates, and the cell becomes a _________.
primary oocyte
79
In meiosis I, the primary oocyte divides into two cells:
first polar body
secondary oocyte
80
a small cell with very little cytoplasm
first polar body
81
a much larger cell than first polar body
secondary oocyte
82
In meiosis II, the tiny __________ may divide to yield two polar bodies of equal size, with unreplicated chromosomes; or the first polar body may decompose.
first polar body
83
The __________ divides unequally in meiosis II to produce another small polar body, with unreplicated chromosomes, and the mature egg cell, or ovum, which contains a large volume of cytoplasm
secondary oocyte
84
Most of the cytoplasm among the four meiotic products in the female ends up in only one cell, the _____
ovum
85
The woman’s body absorbs the ________, which normally play no further role in development.
polar bodies
86
Rarely, a sperm fertilizes a polar body; the woman’s hormones respond as if she is pregnant, but a disorganized clump of cells that is not an embryo grows for a few weeks, and then leaves the woman’s body. This is a type of miscarriage called a _______
“blighted ovum.”
87
Before birth, a female’s million or so oocytes arrest in _______
prophase I
88
By puberty, how many oocytes remain.
400,000
89
one ovary releases a secondary oocyte each month
ovulation
90
If the secondary oocyte is not fertilized, it degenerates and leaves the body in the ________, meiosis never completed.
menstrual flow
91
A female ovulates about ______ oocytes between puberty and menopause.
400
92
A prenatal human is considered an _____ for the first 8 weeks.
embryo
93
The embryo in the first week is considered to be in a ______ stage because it has not yet settled into the uterine lining.
“preimplantation" stage
94
It is the prenatal development after the eighth week, when structures grow and specialize
Fetal period
95
It is called _______ in its ninth week until birth
fetus
96
A sperm cell can survive in the woman’s body for up to __ days
3 days
97
the oocyte can only be fertilized in the ____ to ____ hours after ovulation.
12 to 24
98
_________ chemically activates sperm, and the oocyte secretes a chemical that attracts sperm
Capacitation
99
It guards a secondary oocyte, sperm’s first contact
Corona radiata
100
The sperm’s _______ bursts, releasing enzymes that bore through a protective layer of glycoprotein
acrosome
101
a protective layer of glycoprotein beneath the corona radiata.
zona pellucida
102
______ begins when the outer membranes of the sperm and secondary oocyte meet
Fertilization, or conception
103
Only the sperm’s ______ enters the oocyte
head
104
Within 12 hours of the sperm’s penetration, the ovum’s nuclear membrane disappears, and the two sets of chromosomes (________) approach one another
(pronuclei)
105
Within each pronucleus, _____ replicates
DNA
106
______ completes when the two genetic packages meet and merge
Fertilization
107
it is a fertilized ovum
zygote
108
A day after fertilization, the zygote divides by mitosis, beginning a period of frequent cell division called _______
cleavage
109
resulting early cells
Blastomeres
110
The embryo is called _____ when blastomeres form a solid ball of sixteen or more cells
morula
111
During ______, organelles and molecules from the secondary oocyte’s cytoplasm still control cellular activities
cleavage
112
The ball of cells hollows out, and its center fills with fluid, creating a __________
blastocyst
113
fluid-filled center
cyst
114
clump of cells inside the lining; first event that distinguishes cells from each other in terms of their relative positions.
inner cell mass
115
The cells of the inner cell mass will continue developing to form the ________.
embryo
116
A week after conception, the blastocyst begins to nestle into the woman’s _________
uterine lining (endometrium)
117
_________ takes about a week.
Implantation
118
As implantation starts, the outermost cells of the blastocyst, called the ________, secrete the “pregnancy hormone”
trophoblast
119
“pregnancy hormone” which prevents menstruation
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
120
During the second week of prenatal development, the __________ forms between the inner cell mass and the outer cells anchored to the uterine lining
amniotic cavity
121
The inner cell mass flattens into a two-layered ______.
embryonic disc
122
primary germ layers are?
ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm
123
layer nearest the amniotic cavity
ectoderm
124
inner layer, closer to the blastocyst cavity
endoderm
125
middle layer
Mesoderm
126
three-layered structure
Gastrula or primordial embryo
127
When _______ forms, many cells become “determined” or fated, to develop as a specific cell type.
primary germ layers
128
________ cells become skin, nervous tissue, or parts of certain glands.
Ectoderm cells
129
_____ cells form parts of the liver and pancreas and the linings of many organs
Endoderm cells
130
_______ forms muscle, connective tissues, the reproductive organs, and the kidneys.
Mesoderm
131
Genes called ________ control how the embryo develops parts in the right places.
homeotic
132
_________ mutation can cause mental retardation, autism, and blindness.
Homeotic mutation
133
Structures such as ________, _____, ______, _____, ______, and _______ forms to protect and support the embryo as it develops
chorionic villi, placenta, yolk sac, allantois, umbilical cord, and amniotic sac,
134
By the third week after conception, finger-like outgrowths called _______ extend from the area of the embryonic disc close to the uterine wall, and these project into pools of the woman’s blood.
chorionic villi
135
The mother’s blood system and the embryos are separate, but nutrients and oxygen diffuse across the _______ from her circulation to the embryo, and wastes leave the embryo’s circulation and enter the woman’s circulation to be excreted
chorionic villi
136
By 10 weeks, the _______ is fully formed.
placenta
137
It is an organ that links woman and fetus. It secretes hormones that maintain pregnancy and alter the woman’s metabolism to send nutrients to the fetus.
Placenta
138
The _____ manufactures blood cells, as does the allantois
yolk sac
139
a membrane surrounding the embryo that gives rise to the umbilical blood vessels
allantois
140
It forms around the umbilical blood vessels and attaches to the center of the placenta.
umbilical cord
141
Toward the end of the embryonic period, the _____ shrinks, and the _______ swells with fluid that cushions the embryo and maintains a constant temperature and pressure.
yolk sac, amniotic sac
142
It contains fetal urine and cells.
amniotic fluid
143
_____ cells and _____ cells come from the same fertilized ovum
Villi, embryo’s
144
In _______, a sample of amniotic fluid is taken and fetal cells in it are examined for biochemical, genetic, and chromosomal anomalies
amniocentesis
145
______ cells can differentiate as cells from any of the three primary germ layers, including bone, fat, nerve, cartilage, and muscle cells.
Umbilical cord cells
146
Stem cells from the _____ are used to treat a respiratory disease of newborns that scars and inflames the lungs.
cord
147
The stem cells become two types of needed lung cells
: type that secretes surfactant and the type that exchanges oxygen for carbon dioxide.
148
Twins are either?
fraternal or identical
149
______ twins result when two sperm fertilize two oocytes. This can happen if ovulation occurs in two ovaries in the same month. This twins are no more alike than any two siblings.
Fraternal, or dizygotic (DZ) twins
150
_______ twins descend from a single fertilized ovum. They are natural clones. Three types of this twins can form, depending upon when the fertilized ovum splits.
Identical, or monozygotic (MZ) twins
151
1 in 50,000 to 100,000 pregnancies, an embryo divides into twins after the point at which the two groups of cells can develop as two individuals, between days 13 and 15.
conjoined or “Siamese” twins
152
they share a body but they have two heads
Dicephalic
153
twins detected early in pregnancy but the eventual births are of a single child.
Vanishing twin
154
In a process called ________, the specialization of one group of cells causes adjacent groups of cells to specialize.
embryonic induction
155
It is the transformation of the simple three layers of the embryo into distinct organs.
Organogenesis
156
During the third week of prenatal development, a band called the _______ appears along the back of the embryo.
primitive streak
157
The _______ gradually elongates to form an axis that other structures organize around as they develop.
primitive streak
158
The primitive streak gives rise to connective tissue progenitor cells and the _________, which is a structure that forms the basic framework of the skeleton
notochord
159
The notochord induces a sheet of overlying ectoderm to fold into the hollow ________, which develops into the brain and spinal cord (central nervous system).
neural tube
160
If the neural tube does not completely zip up by day 20, a birth defect called a __________ occurs
neural tube defect (NTD)
161
Lack of the ________ can cause NTDs in embryos
B vitamin folic acid
162
A blood test during the 15th week of pregnancy detects a substance from the fetus’s liver called __________ that leaks at an abnormally rapid rate into the woman’s circulation if there is an NTD.
alpha fetoprotein (AFP)
163
Appearance of the ________marks the beginning of organ development.
neural tube
164
The heart begins to beat around day __, and is easily detectable by day ___.
18, 22
165
The ______ week of embryonic existence is one of spectacularly rapid growth and differentiation. Arms and legs begin to extend from small buds on the torso. Blood cells form and fill primitive blood vessels. Immature lungs and kidneys begin to develop.
fourth
166
By the _____ and ______ weeks, the embryo’s head appears to be too large for the rest of its body. Limbs end in platelike structures with tiny ridges, and gradually apoptosis sculpts the fingers and toes. The eyes are open, but they do not yet have lids or irises
fifth and sixth
167
By the ____ and ____ weeks, a skeleton composed of cartilage forms. The embryo is now about the length and weight of a paper clip.
7th and 8th
168
At _____ weeks of gestation, the prenatal human has rudiments of all of the structures that will be present at birth. It is now a fetus.
8th
169
During the ____ period, body proportions approach those of a newborn. Initially, the ears lie low, and the eyes are widely spaced. Bone begins to replace the softer cartilage. As nerve and muscle functions become coordinated, the fetus moves.
fetal
170
An individual with ____ chromosomes is a female
two X
171
What chromosomes does male contains?
X and Y
172
A gene on the Y chromosome, called _____, determines maleness.
SRY (for “sex-determining region of the Y”)
173
Differences between the sexes do not appear until week __, after the SRY gene is expressed in males
6
174
Differences may be noticeable on ultrasound scans by ____ to ____weeks.
12 to 15 weeks.
175
By week ___, the fetus sucks its thumb, kicks, makes fists and faces, and has the beginnings of teeth. It breathes amniotic fluid in and out, and urinates and defecates into it. The first trimester (three months) of pregnancy ends.
By week 12
175
By the ____ month, the fetus has hair, eyebrows, lashes, nipples, and nails.
fourth
176
By ___ weeks, the vocal cords have formed, but the fetus makes no sound because it doesn’t breathe air.
18
177
By the end of the ____ month, the fetus curls into a head-to-knees position. It weighs about 454 grams (1 pound).
fifth
178
During the ___ month, the skin appears wrinkled because there isn’t much fat beneath it, and turns pink as capillaries fill with blood.
6th
179
By the end of the _____, the woman feels distinct kicks and jabs and may even detect a fetal hiccup. The fetus is now about 23 centimeters (9 inches) long.
second trimester
180
In the _____, fetal brain cells rapidly link into networks as organs elaborate and grow. A layer of fat forms beneath the skin. The digestive and respiratory systems mature last, which is why infants born prematurely often have difficulty digesting milk and breathing.
final trimester
181
Approximately ____ days after a single sperm burrowed its way into an oocyte, a baby is ready to be born.
266
182
Of every 100 secondary oocytes exposed to sperm only ___ are born alive.
31
183
Certain ________ or _______can affect development in an embryo or fetus, causing birth defects.
genetic abnormalities or toxic exposures
184
Only a ________ can be passed to future generations.
genetic birth defect
185
The time when genetic abnormalities, toxic substances, or viruses can alter a specific structure is its ______
critical period
185
The _____ is sensitive throughout prenatal development, and connections between nerve cells continue to change throughout life. Because of this, many birth defect syndromes include learning disabilities or mental retardation.
brain
186
In a rare inherited condition called _______ a mutation halts limb development from the third to the fifth week of the embryonic period, causing “flippers” to develop in place of arms and legs
phocomelia
187
Chemicals or other agents that cause birth defects are called ______ (Greek for “monster-causing”).
teratogens
188
certain variants of a gene that control the body’s use of an amino acid called _______ affect whether or not the medication valproic acid causes birth defects.
homocysteine
189
It is used to prevent seizures and symptoms of bipolar disorder.
Valproic acid
190
the mothers had all taken a mild tranquilizer,_______, to alleviate nausea early in pregnancy, during the critical period for limb formation.
thalidomide
191
In spite of its teratogenic effects, _______ is used to treat leprosy, AIDS, and certain blood and bone marrow cancers.
thalidomide
192
_______may slow fetal growth, particularly of the head, but the babies quickly catch up. No effects were seen on either language skills or IQ. Children exposed to this in the uterus may have difficulty concentrating and behave poorly,
Cocaine
193
chemicals in ________ stress a fetus, this increases the risk of spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, prematurity, and low birth weight.
Cigarette smoke
194
A pregnant woman who has just one or two alcoholic drinks a day, or perhaps a large amount at a single crucial time, risks ________ in her unborn child.
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
195
A child with ______has a characteristic small head and a flat face. Growth is slow before and after birth. Teens and young adults who have this are short and have small heads
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
196
The acne medicine _________ is a vitamin ___ derivative that causes spontaneous abortion and defects of the heart, nervous system, and face in exposed embryos
isotretinoin (Accutane), A
197
Excess vitamin __ can harm a fetus that becomes accustomed to the large amounts the woman takes. After birth, when the vitamin supply suddenly plummets, the baby may develop symptoms of_______ , bruising and becoming infected easily.
C, vitamin C deficiency (scurvy)
198
Teratogens are present in some workplaces.
Occupational Hazards
199
____ can reach a fetus through the placenta or infect a newborn via blood contact during birth
HIV
200
German measles _______is a well-known viral teratogen
(rubella)
201
______ can harm a fetus or newborn whose immune system is immature.
Herpes simplex virus
202
Pregnant women are routinely checked for ________, which in adults causes liver inflammation, great fatigue, and other symptoms.
hepatitis B infection
203
_______ means moving through the life cycle.
Aging
204
Although some aspects of our anatomy and physiology peak very early, age __ seems to be a turning point for decline.
30
205
after 30 years of age, the human body becomes functionally less efficient by about ___ percent each year.
0.8
206
A fetus that does not receive adequate nutrition has ________, and though born on time, is very small.
intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR)
207
_______ infants, are small but are born early, and are not predisposed to conditions resulting from IUGR.
Premature
208
Growth-retarded babies have too little ____ tissue, and since _____ is the primary site of insulin action, glucose metabolism is altered.
muscle
209
Inherited conditions that affect children are _____
recessive
210
Even a fetus can have symptoms of inherited disease, like ______ (“brittle bone disease”)
osteogenesis imperfecta
211
inherited conditions that start to affect health in early to middle adulthood.
Polycystic kidney disease
212
The joint destruction of _______ may begin in one’s thirties, but not cause pain for 20 years.
osteoarthritis
213
The uncontrollable movements, unsteady gait, and diminishing mental faculties of ____disease typically become obvious near age 40, but may have begun years earlier.
Huntington
214
German neurologist _______ first identified the condition in 1907 as affecting people in mid-adulthood.
Alois Alzheimer
215
The brains of Alzheimer disease patients contain deposits of a protein called _______ in learning and memory centers.
beta amyloid
216
Alzheimer brains also contain structures called ________, which consist of a protein called ____
neurofibrillary tangles, tau
217
___ binds to and disrupts microtubules in nerve cell branches, destroying the shape of the cell, which is essential to its ability to communicate.
tau
218
Genes control aging both ______ (as structures break down) and _______ (by initiating new activities).
passively, actively
219
The most severe rapid aging disorders are the _______. (They were once called progerias, but the newer terminology reflects the fact that they do not hasten all aspects of aging.)
segmental progeroid syndromes
220
Most of these disorders are caused by impairment of cells’ ability to repair ____
DNA
221
People with ________, for example, may have a normal life span, but develop gray hair or baldness, cataracts, cancers, and osteoporosis at young ages.
Rothmund Thomson syndrome
222
______ becomes apparent before age 20, causing death before age 50 from diseases associated with aging.
Werner syndrome
223
An affected child typically appears normal at birth but slows in growth by the first birthday. The body ages on the inside as well. The child’s cells show aging-related changes too
Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome
224
Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome is caused by a single DNA base change in the gene that encodes a protein called _____.
lamin A
225
the shortened protein is called?
progerin
226
_______ reflects genetic activity plus a lifetime of environmental influences.
Aging
227
A genome-level approach to identifying causes of longevity identified a region of ______ that houses gene variants associated with long life.
chromosome 4
228
people who lived past 100 years; they have higher levels of large lipoproteins that carry cholesterol (HDL) than other people, which researchers estimate adds 20 years of life
Centenarians
