research Flashcards
Nursing Research (cry) (95 cards)
1
Q
Evidence Informed Practice
A
blends knowledge from research, practice and people experiencing the practice
2
Q
Triangulation
A
happens when one or both of the people involved in the conflict try to pull a third person into the dynamic, often with the goal of: deflecting some of the tension. creating another conflict to take the spotlight off the original issue. reinforcing their sense of rightness or superiority.
3
Q
Ideological perspectives
A
a set of beliefs and values that shape an individual or group’s understanding of social, political, and economic issues.
4
Q
Data collection tools and instruments
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Data collection tools refer to the devices/instruments used to collect data, such as a paper questionnaire or computer-assisted interviewing system. Case Studies, Checklists, Interviews, Observation sometimes, and Surveys or Questionnaires are all tools used to collect data.
5
Q
Survey
A
Questionnaires are popular methods for collecting data within quantitative studies in nursing
6
Q
focus group
A
A focus group is a group interview involving a small number (sometimes up to ten) of demographically similar participants.
7
Q
sample size
A
Sample size is the number of observations or individuals included in a study or experiment
8
Q
Snowball sampling
A
snowball sampling relies on the availability and willingness of your initial or existing participants to refer or introduce others.through which wave 1 subjects are recruited; wave 1 subjects in turn recruit wave 2 subjects; and the sample subsequently expands wave by wave like a snowball growing in size as it rolls down a hill.
9
Q
network sampling
A
a sampling technique in which members of a study group recruit their peers to participate in the research
10
Q
convenience sampling
A
non-probability sampling method where units are selected for inclusion in the sample because they are the easiest for the researcher to access. This can be due to geographical proximity, availability at a given time, or willingness to participate in the research.
11
Q
Purposive sampling
A
a group of non-probability sampling techniques in which units are selected because they have characteristics that you need in your sample
12
Q
Stratified
A
method of sampling from a population which can be partitioned into subpopulations. into Strata
13
Q
inferential statistics
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the practice of using sampled data to draw conclusions or make predictions about a larger sample data sample or population.
14
Q
Descriptive statistics
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a branch of statistics that involves summarizing, organizing, and presenting data meaningfully and concisely. It focuses on describing and analyzing a dataset’s main features and characteristics without making any generalizations or inferences to a larger population.
15
Q
Statistical significance
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the claim that a result from data generated by testing or experimentation is likely to be attributable to a specific cause. A high degree of statistical significance indicates that an observed relationship is unlikely to be due to chance.
16
Q
Clinical Significance
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the ability for a treatment or research experiment to help a client or patient so much that they are returned to normal functioning from a dysfunctional state.
17
Q
Vulnerable Populations
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individuals who experience greater risk factors for poor health outcomes due to their racial or ethnic status or sexual preferences
18
Q
Participatory research
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focuses on a process of sequential reflection and action, carried out with and by local people rather than on them.
19
Q
Community-based research
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seeks to empower communities and effect policy changes.ex: research on stroke preparedness, the ability to recognize a stroke and call 911; primary stroke prevention; secondary stroke prevention; and stroke recovery.
20
Q
Program evaluation
A
the systematic collection of information about the activities, characteristics, and outcomes of programs to make judgments about the program, improve program effectiveness, and/or inform decisions about future program development
21
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Case study
A
a process or record of research in which detailed consideration is given to the development of a particular person, group, or situation over a period of time.
22
Q
Research ethics Board
A
ensures that all research involving humans meets today’s ethical and scientific standards
23
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Ethical Principle in Research with Humans
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the principles of respect of persons, beneficence and justice.
24
Q
Knowledge Translations
A
he activities involved in moving research from the laboratory, the research journal, and the academic conference into the hands of people and organizations who can put it to practical use.
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Using Research Results
to use the data collected to answer the research question(s) posed in the introduction, even if the findings challenge the hypothesis.
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T-Test
an inferential statistic used to determine if there is a significant difference between the means of two groups and how they are related
| coin flip
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ANOVA
to determine differences between research results from three or more unrelated samples or groups.(other sources say 2 or more so idk)
28
Chi-Square
a statistical test used to examine the differences between categorical variables from a random sample in order to judge the goodness of fit between expected and observed results.
| highscore = greater difference between expected and unexpected
29
Pearson’s correlation
measures the strength of the linear relationship between two variables. It has a value between -1 to 1, with a value of -1 meaning a total negative linear correlation, 0 being no correlation, and + 1 meaning a total positive correlation.
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Within Subjects
a research design method of assigning participants to treatment groups.measuring blood pressure in the same group of participants both before and after taking the medication
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Between Subjects
every participant experiences only one condition, and you compare group differences between participants in various conditions.
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Pre-test, Post-test
A pretest is an assessment measure given to participants before they have undergone some type of treatment as part of a research study, while a posttest is an assessment measure given to participants after they have received treatment as part of a research study.
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Rigour
the quality or state of being very exact, careful, or strict.
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Transparency
providing as much information as possible to allow for appropriate care with safety in mind
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credibility
the quality of being trusted and believed in
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Audibility
the ability of an auditor to get accurate results when they exam a company's financial reports.
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confirmability
the degree to which the results could be confirmed or corroborated by others
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dependability
the quality of being trustworthy and reliable
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Bias
a tendency to believe that some people, ideas, etc., are better than others that usually results in treating some people unfairly.
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Bracketing
the setting aside of one's own beliefs and a priori assumptions in order to avoid misrepresenting a subject's intended meaning, perception, or experience.
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Member checks
a technique for exploring the credibility of results. Data or results are returned to participants to check for accuracy and resonance with their experiences.
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Transferability
The ability to transfer research findings or methods from one group to another
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Generalizability
the degree to which you can apply the results of your study to a broader context.
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Internal Validity
examines whether the study design, conduct, and analysis answer the research questions without bias
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External Validity
External validity examines whether the study findings can be generalized to other contexts.
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Reliability
the degree that the results of a given study can be repeated or replicated under the same conditions
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Threats to external and internal validity
There are seven threats to external validity: selection bias, history, experimenter effect, Hawthorne effect, testing effect, aptitude-treatment and situation effect.
internal history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, regression, selection, and mortality. One of those primary threats is selection or sampling effects.
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Assent
term used to express willingness to participate in research by persons who are by definition too young to give informed consent but are old enough to understand the proposed research in general, its expected risks and possible benefits, and the activities expected of them as subjects.
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Ethical dilemma
type of ethical issue that arises when the available choices and obligations in a specific situation do not allow for an ethical outcome
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Literature review
Key step in the research process, as well as a separate section of a study & report/article-Critical evaluation of scholarly literature on a topic-Includes numbers of resources-Synthesis of the literature Overall purpose: to discover what is known about a topic
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Primary source
Original manuscript, documents or recordsused in preparing a published or unpublishedwork-Data-based, theory, researchEg. Published research study
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Systematic Review
A “synthesis or integration of research studies”
Purpose: A big picture look at the results of many studies
Benefit: Look at the problem from more than one perspective
Often using rigorous inclusion/exclusion criteria, then:
Determine similarities of studies
Determine quality of studies
Analyze their results Quantify effectiveness of intervention
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types of systematic review
meta analysis
meta synthesis
integrative or mixed methods
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Meta-analysis
6- Meta-analysis-A statistical technique for combining the finding of QUANTITATIVE studies on given topic Combine quantitative studies
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Meta- synthesis
An approach to compare and integrate findings from qualitative studies on a given topic.
combine many qualitative studies
Systematic review of qualitative research
Uses comparative analysis and interpretative synthesis of findings
Seeks to retain essence and unique contribution of each study included
Builds a critical mass of qualitative research evidence that is relevant to practice
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Integrative Review
provides a broader summary of the literature and includes findings from a range of research designs. It gathers and synthesizes both empirical and theoretical evidence relevant to a clearly defined problem
-Review of the literature that assimilates the results of research studies by comparing and contrasting them in order to describe the state of knowledge. It may include quantitative and qualitative research studies.
provides a broader summary of the literature and includes findings from a range of research designs.
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Post-positivist paradigm
reject the idea that any individual can see the world perfectly as it really is. We are all biased and all of our observations are affected. rejects the positivist approach that a researcher can be an independent observer of the social world. Postpositivists argue that the ideas, and even the particular identity, of a researcher influences what they observe and therefore impacts upon what they conclude
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Critical Theory paradigm
A type of nursing paradigm
b. Reality is constructed by those with the most power at particular points in history.
c. Over time, reality is shaped by numerous social, political, economic, and cultural forces.
d. Contextual awareness and its relationship to the participants’ understanding ofreality is the focus of the research.
e. Dialogue brings to the forefront the historical context behind experiences of suffering, conflict, and collective strugglesf. Goal: change, Reconstruction of what we know to be true. helps us understand how communication is used to oppress, and provides ways to foster positive social change
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Constructivist paradigm
a. A type of nursing paradigm
b. Reality is constructed by individual perception
c. Emphasizes the meaning ascribed to human experiences
d. Focus on interpretation of written texts, art, pictures, and videos.
e. Goal: understanding (what it is like to have an experience
emphasizes how an individual actively constructs their own notions of reality through their cognition
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12. Qualitative approach (purpose, questions, data collection, analysis)
a. Purpose: Used to explore personal meanings and context of an experience, culture, human patterns, and processes
b. Data Collection: Data usually consist of words or text, rich description of stories/narratives
c. Analysis: Search for patterns/themes
d. Small sample sizes
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13. Quantitative approach (purpose, questions, data collection, analysis)
a. Purpose: Used to explore research questions or test hypotheses that describe phenomena, test relationships, assess differences, and try to explain cause-and-effect interactions among the variables being studied
b. Data Collection: ¨Data usually consist of numbers (counts) and undergo analysis with statistical formulas
c. Analysis: Identify statistical relationships
d. Large sample sizes
62
Mixed-methods approach
a. Analyze the data using both quantitative and qualitative methods
b. Is a form of triangulation
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Triangulation
a. is a powerful technique that facilitates validation of data through cross verification from two or more sources. In particular, it refers to the application and combination of several research methods in the study of the same phenomenon
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Population
– all elements that meet certain criteria for inclusion in study; a well-defined set that has certain properties/characteristicsEg. all women students in higher education
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Sample
a subset of the population that is selected for study; defines the selected group of people or elements from which data are collected for a studyEg. women students in three state universities in the southwest
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Data Saturation
– term in qualitative research; researchers reach a point in their analysis of data that sampling more data will not lead to more information related to their research questions
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Probability sampling
– randomization of sample, more likely to be representative of population; each element of the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample; most representative; strongest; Types:
Simple Random – random number table
Stratified Random – proportional, subgroups
Multistage – cluster, smaller & smaller subgroups
Systematic – fixed intervals
68
Nonprobability sampling
a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process that does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selecteTypes:
-Convenience sampling – most readily available persons are participants (risk: bias, self-selection)
-Quota sampling – identifies a specific strata of the population and represents it proportionally (known attributes) in the sample (more representative, still risk of bias)
-Matching sampling – an equivalent comparison sample group by filling it with participants who are similar (chosen variable) to each subject in another sample group (particular criteria)
-Purposive sampling – also called judgmental or selective sampling; efforts are made to include typical or atypical subjects; sampling is based on the researcher’s judgment
...Network or Snowball Effect Sampling – takes advantage of social networks to get the sample; one person in the sample asks another to join the sample, and so on; finding samples difficult to locate using social networks – friends have similar characteristics, participants asked to contact other eligible people
-Theoretical sampling – used in grounded theory research; data are gathered from an individual or group that can provide relevant data for theory generation; the sample is saturated when the data collection is completed based on the researcher’s expectations; diversity in the sample is encouraged
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Thematic analysis
Process of recognizing and recovering the emergent themes; emphasizes pinpointing, examining, and recording patterns (or “themes”) within data; most common kind of analysis in qualitative research
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Grounded Theory Analysis –
Examine each line of data line by line; divide data into discrete parts; compare data for similarities/differences; compare data with other data collected, continuously – constant comparative method; cluster into categories; determine relationships among categories.
71
Ethnography
Ethnographic studies answer questions about how cultural knowledge norms, values, and other contextual variables influence the health experience of a particular patient population in a specific setting. goal: understand worldview & develop cultural theory. Eg. How does international development work with clients impact those with HIV/AIDS who have been abandoned by their families in Ghana?
72
Phenomenology
a type of research that seeks to explain the nature of things through the way people experience them
the science of phenomena as distinct from that of the nature of being.an approach that concentrates on the study of consciousness and the objects of direct experience. Eg. What is the lived experience of families who are homeless and are living in a shelter?
73
Generalization
Generalization: Extending the findings from the sample under study to the larger population.
-The extent is influenced by the quality of the study and consistency of the study’s findings.
- Generalization which is an act of reasoning that involves drawing broad inferences from particular observations, is widely-acknowledged as a quality standard in quantitative research, but is more controversial in qualitative research.
Inappropriate generalization: Samples cannot be generalized beyond their sampling criteria. This may lead to inappropriate generalizations:-Because of language or reading ability-To other types of illnesses or injuries
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Independent variables (X factor)
\ An independent variable is the stimulus or activity manipulated or varied by the research to cause an effect on dependent variables.
-It is also called the treatment or experimental variable. (Elise said know this)
-The independent variable causes the dependent variable to change.
-The independent variable does not change—it is controlled by the researcher. -It is either manipulated or not manipulated(experimental vs. non-experimental)
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Dependent variables (Y factor)
The dependent variable is the outcome or response the researcher wants to predict or explain. Changes in the dependent variable are presumed to be caused by the independent variable. Dependent variable (DV)—the presumed effect that varies with a change in the independent variable (IV). behavior/characteristic/outcome of interest to be explained/predicted/affectedIt is not manipulated
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Extraneous/confounding variables
: They can interfere with obtaining clear understanding of relational or causal dynamics in the study. They may interfere with the hypothesized relationships between variables.-They can be recognized or unrecognized and controlled or uncontrolled.-If the variable is not recognized until the study is in process or cannot be controlled, it is called a confounding variable.-An environmental variable is an uncontrolled variable relating to the setting.-These occur in all research studies.-The influence of extraneous variables can be decreased through sample selection and the useof defined research settings.
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Operational Definition
Procedures & tools required to measure the variable -Way of defining a variable that makes it measurable or manipulable in real worldEg. A researcher measuring happiness and depression in college students decides to use a ten-question happiness scale to measure positive outlook in her subjects. In other words, her operational definition of happiness in this case is a given subject's score on the test
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Control
- The control group is defined as the group in an experiment or study that does notreceive treatment by the researchers and is then used as a benchmark to measure how the other tested subjects do. Control group – used in studies with random sampling.
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Manipulation
– Implementation of a treatment or intervention
The independent variable is controlled
.Must be careful to avoid introduction of bias into the study
Usually done only in quasi-experimental and experimental designsEx. Responding (or Dependent) Variable: This is the variable that changes as a result of the changes in the manipulated variable (fertilizer). In our fertilizer example, the responding (dependent) variable would be the size of the plants
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Random Assignment
– Random assignment or random placement is an experimental technique for assigning human participants or animal subjects to different groups in an experiment (e.g., a treatment group versus a control group) using randomization, such as by a chance procedure (e.g., flipping a coin) or a random number generator.
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Random sampling
Increases the representativeness of the sample based on the target population
Control group: Used in studies with random sampling
Comparison group: Not randomly determined
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Simple random sampling
is the basic sampling technique where we select a group of subjects (a sample) for study from a larger group (a population). Each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
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Experimental design
- A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to test his hypothesis by reaching valid conclusions about relationships between independent and dependent variables. It refers to the conceptual framework within which the experiment is conducted.In an experimental design, subjects are randomly assigned to groups for different levels of treatment (or no treatment, i.e., the control group). Randomized control trial
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Quasi-experimental design
establish a cause-and-effect relationship between an independent and dependent variable. However, unlike a true experiment, a quasi-experiment does not rely on random assignment. Instead, subjects are assigned to groups based on non-random criteria.
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Nonexperimental design
– Used in studies to:
Construct a picture of a phenomenon at one point or over a period of time e.g., ascertaining the prevalence of a health problem
Explore people, places, events, or situations as they naturally occur
Test relationships and differences amongst variables
If there is no intervention, the study is non-experimental, or observational
Not all independent variables (“causes”) of interest to nurse researchers can be experimentally manipulated.
For example, gender cannot ever be manipulated
Smoking cannot ethically be manipulated
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Exploratory/descriptive design
- -Exploratory – Major emphasis is on gaining ideas and insights. -
-Descriptive – Emphasis on determining the frequency with which something occurs, or the covariance between two variables.
-Exploratory research (or ER) is an examination into a subject in an attempt to gain further insight. With ER, a researcher starts with a general idea and uses research as a tool to identify issues that could be the focus of future research
-Descriptive research methods are pretty much as they sound — they describe situations. They do not make accurate predictions, and they do not determine cause and effect. There are three main types of descriptive methods: observational methods, case-study methods and survey
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Correlational design
investigates relationships between variables without the researcher controlling or manipulating any of them. A correlation reflects the strength and/or direction of the relationship between two (or more) variables. The direction of a correlation can be either positive or negative
Purpose: describe whether variables are related, without ascribing a cause-and-effect connection.
Research done after I.V. has occurred
examine relationships/differences, don’t manipulate
Association between variables found through statistical analysisInfer causality, open to several interpretations
Interested in causes (e.g., prognosis or harm/etiology questions) for which manipulation is not possible
Correlation does not equal causation
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Prediction
Presumed to effect the dependent variable oExperimental if manipulatedoNon-experimental If occurs naturally
Also called the independent variable,experimental, casual, manipulated,explanatory
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Retrospective
Retrospective
Retrospective correlationaloan outcome in the present (e.g., depression) is linked to a hypothesized cause occurring in the past (e.g., having had a miscarriage). (usually cross-sectional)Retrospective correlational case–controlo“cases” (e.g., those with lung cancer) arecompared to “controls” (e.g., those withoutlung cancer) on prior potential causes (e.g.,smoking habits). (usually cross-sectional)
90
Prospective
individuals are followed over time and data about them is collected as their characteristics or circumstances change
potential cause in the present (e.g., experiencing vs.not experiencing a miscarriage) is linked to ahypothesized later outcome (e.g., depression 6months later)This is called a cohort study by medical researchers.
Prospective designs are stronger than retrospective designs in supporting causal inferences—but neither is as strong as experimental designs
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Cross-sectional
Data are collected at a single point in time
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Longitudinal
Data are collected two or more times over an extended period.oE.g. Follow-up studies
Longitudinal designs are better (stronger) at showing patterns of change and at clarifying whether a cause occurred before an effect (outcome
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Control group
. Comparisons between a “control group” and an “intervention group” demonstrate whether or not there is any difference (effect) after receiving a treatmentCounterfactual = control group
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Treatment group
The design uses large number of subjects to test a treatment’s effect and compare results witha control group who did not receive the treatment
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