Research And Program Evaluation

Question 1

The most valuable type of research is

a. always conducted using a factor analysis.
b. conducted using the chi-square.
c. the experiment, used to discover cause-and-effect relationships.
d. thequasi-experiment.

Answer 1

The experiment, used to discover cause-and-effect relationships.

Question 2

Experiments emphasize parsimony, which means

a. interpreting the results in the simplest way.
b. interpreting the results in the most complex manner.
c. interpreting the results using a correlation coefficient.
d. interpreting the results using a clinical interview.

Answer 2

Interpreting the results in the simplest way.

Parsimonious literally means a tendency to be miserly and not overspend. A parsimonious individual is said to be overly economical and stingy. In research, we strive for parsimony in the sense that the easiest and less-complex explanation is said to be the best; an economical description if you will.

Question 3

Occam’s Razor suggests that experimenters

a. interpret the results in the simplest manner.
b. interpret the results in the most complex manner. c. interpret the results using a correlation coefficient. d. interpret the results using a clinical interview.

Answer 3

Interpret the results in the simplest manner.

A word to the wise: Exams often refer to parsimony as Occam’s Razor, the principle of economy, or Lloyd Morgan’s 1894 Canon (canon in this sense means “law”). Conway Lloyd Morgan was an English psychologist/physiologist, while William of Occam was a fourteenth-century philosopher and theologian.

Question 4

A counselor educator is running an experiment to test a new form of counseling. Unbeknownst to the experimenter one of the clients in the study is secretly seeing a gestalt therapist. This experiment

a. is parsimonious.
b. is an example of Occam’s Razor.
c. is confounded/flawed.
d. is valid and will most likely help the field of counseling.

Answer 4

Is confounded/flawed.

Question 5

Nondirective is to person-centered as

a. psychological testing is to counseling.
b. confounding is to experimenting.
c. appraisal is to research.
d. parsimony is to Occam’s Razor.

Answer 5

Parsimony is to Occam’s Razor.

Question 6

An experiment is said to be confounded when

a. undesirable variables are not kept out of the experiment.
b. undesirable variables are kept out of the experiment.
c. basic research is used in place of applied research.
d. the sample is random.

Answer 6

Undesirable variables are not kept out of the experiment.

Confounding is said to occur when an undesirable variable which is not controlled by the researcher is introduced in the experiment. Hint: Your exam could refer to this as a contaminating variable.

Question 7

In experimental terminology IV stands for ________ and DV stands for ________.

a. independent variable; dependent variable
b. dependent variable; independent variable
c. individual variable; dependent variable
d. independent variable; designer variable

Answer 7

Independent variable; dependent variable

Question 8

A professor of counselor education hypothesized that biofeedback training could reduce anxiety and improve the average score on written board exams. If this professor decides to conduct a formal experiment the IV will be the ________, and the DV will be the ________.

a. professor; anxiety level
b. anxiety level; board exam score
c. biofeedback; board exam score
d. board exam score; biofeedback

Answer 8

Biofeedback; board exam score

Question 9

Experimenters should always abide by a code of ethics. The variable you manipulate/control in an experiment is the

a. DV.
b. dependent variable.
c. the variable you will measure to determine the outcome.
d. IV or independent variable.

Answer 9

IV or independent variable.

Question 10

In order for the professor of counselor education (see question 708) to conduct an experiment regarding his hypothesis he will need a(n) ________ and a(n) ________.

a. biofeedback group; systematic desensitization group
b. control group; systematic desensitization group
c. control group; experimental group
d. control group with at least 60 subjects; experimental group
with at least 60 subjects

Answer 10

Control group; experimental group

Question 11

In order for the professor of counselor education to conduct the experiment suggested in question 708 the experimental group would need to receive

a. the manipulated IV.
b. the biofeedback training.
c. a and b.
d. the organismic IV.

Answer 11

A and B.

The experimental group receives the IV, which in this case is the biofeedback training. An organismic variable is one the researcher cannot control yet exists, such as height, weight, or gender. To determine whether an organismic IV exists you simply ask yourself if there is an experimental variable being examined which you cannot manipulate. In most cases, when you are confronted with IV/DV identification questions, the IV will be of the “manipulated variety.”

Question 12

Hypothesis testing is most closely related to the work of

a. Robert Hoppock.
b. Sigmund Freud.
c. Lloyd Morgan.
d. R. A. Fisher.

Answer 12

R. A. Fisher.

Hypothesis testing was pioneered by R. A. Fisher. A hypothesis is a hunch or an educated guess which can be tested utilizing the experimental model.

Question 13

The null hypothesis suggests that there will not be a significant difference between the experimental group which received the IV and the control group which did not. Thus, if the experiment in question 708 was conducted, the null hypothesis would suggest that

a. all students receiving biofeedback training would score equally well on the board exam.
b. systematic desensitization might work better than biofeedback.
c. biofeedback will not improve the board exam scores.
d. meta-analysis is required.

Answer 13

Biofeedback will not improve the board exam scores.

Question 14

The hunch is known as the experimental or alternative hypothesis. The experimental hypothesis suggests that a difference will be evident between the control group and the experimental group (i.e., the group receiving the IV). Thus, if the experiment in question 708 were conducted, the experimental hypothesis would suggest that

a. the biofeedback would raise board scores.
b. the control group will score better on the board exam.
c. there will be no difference between the experimental and
the control groups.
d. the experiment has been confounded.

Answer 14

The biofeedback would raise board scores.

An alternative hypothesis—which may be called the “affirmative hypothesis” on your exam—asserts that the IV has indeed caused a change.

Question 15

From a purely statistical standpoint, in order to compare a control group (which does not receive the IV or experimental manipulation) to the experimental group the researcher will need

a. a correlation coefficient
b. only descriptive statistics.
c. percentile rank.
d. a test of significance.

Answer 15

A test of significance.

Question 16

When you see the letter P in relation to a test of significance it
means

a. portion.
b. population parameter.
c. probability.
d. the researcher is using an ethnographic qualitative
approach.

Answer 16

Probability.

Question 17

In the social sciences the accepted probability level is usually

a. .05 or less.
b. 1.0 or higher.
c. .0001 or less.
d. .05 or higher.

Answer 17

.05 or less.

The two most popular levels of significance are .05 and .01.

Question 18

P = .05 really means that

a. five subjects were not included in the study.
b. there is only a 5% chance that the difference between the control group and the experimental groups is due to chance
factors.
c. the level of significance is .01.
d. no level of significance has been set.

Answer 18

There is only a 5% chance that the difference between the control group and the experimental groups is due to chance
factors.

Question 19

P = .05 really means that

a. differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 95 times out of 100.
b. differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 99 times out of 100.
c. there is a 95% error factor.
d. there is a 10% error factor.

Answer 19

Differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 95 times out of 100.

Question 20

The study that would best rule out chance factors would have a significance level of P =

a. .05.
b. .01.
c. .001.
d. .08.

Answer 20

.001.

The smaller the value for P the more stringent the level of significance. Here, the .001 level is the most stringent level listed, indicating that there is only one chance in 1,000 that the results are due to chance, versus one in 20 for .05, and one in 100 for .01. In plain, everyday English it is easier to get significant results using .08, .05, or .01, than it is using .001.

Question 21

Type I and Type II errors are called ________ and ________
respectively.

a. beta;alpha
b. .01;.05
c. a and b
d. alpha;beta

Answer 21

Alpha;beta

If it sounds a little like Greek, that’s because it is. Alpha and beta are the first and second letters of the Greek alphabet. A Type I (alpha error) occurs when a researcher rejects the null hypothesis when it is true; and a Type II error (beta error) occurs when you accept null when it is false.

Question 22

A Type I error occurs when

a. you have a beta error.
b. you accept null when it is false.
c. you reject null when it is true.
d. you fail to use a test of significance.

Answer 22

You reject null when it is true.

Question 23

A Type II error

a. is also called a beta error.
b. means you reject null when it is applicable. c. means you accept null when it is false.
d. a and c.

Answer 23

A and C.

Question 24

Assume the experiment in question 708 is conducted. The results indicate that the biofeedback helped raise written board exam scores but in reality this is not the case. The researcher has made a

a. Type I error.
b. Type II error.
c. beta error.
d. b and c.

Answer 24

Type I error.

In this case null would indicate that biofeedback did not raise board exam scores. This question tells you that the experimental results revealed that biofeedback did raise board scores, so you will reject the null hypothesis.

Question 25

A counselor educator decides to increase the sample size in her experiment. This will

a. confound the experiment in nearly every case.
b. raise the probability of Type I and Type II errors.
c. have virtually no impact on Type I and Type II errors.
d. reduce Type I and Type II errors.

Answer 25

Reduce Type I and Type II errors.

Raising the size of a sample helps to lower the risk of chance/ error factors. Simply put: Differences revealed via large samples are more likely to be genuine than differences revealed using a small sample size.

Question 26

If a researcher changes the significance level from .05 to .001, then

a. alpha and beta errors will increase.
b. alpha errors increase but beta errors decrease.
c. alpha errors decrease; however, beta errors increase.
d. this will have no impact on Type I and Type II errors.

Answer 26

Alpha errors decrease; however, beta errors increase.

Question 27

A counselor believes that clients who receive assertiveness training will ask more questions in counseling classes. An experimental group receives assertiveness training while a control group does not. In order to test for significant differences
between the groups the counselor should utilize
a. the student’s t test.
b. a correlation coefficient.
c. a survey.
d. an analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Answer 27

The student’s t test.

When comparing two sample groups the t test, which is a simplistic form of the analysis of variance, is utilized. The t test is used to ascertain whether two sample means are significantly different.

Question 28

The researcher in question 727 now attempts a more complex experiment. One group receives no assertiveness training, a second group receives four assertiveness training sessions, and a third receives six sessions. The statistic of choice would be the

a. mean.
b. t test.
c. two-way ANOVA.
d. ANOVA.

Answer 28

ANOVA.

Since the simple ANOVA or one-way analysis of variance is used when there is more than one level of a single IV, which in this case is the assertiveness training.

Question 29

If the researcher in the previous question utilized two IVs then the statistic of choice would be the

a. median.
b. t test.
c. two-way ANOVA or MANOVA.
d. ANOVA.

Answer 29

Two-way ANOVA or MANOVA.

Two IVs requires a two-way ANOVA, three IVs, a three-way ANOVA, etc.

Question 30

To complete a t test you would consult a tabled value of t. In order to see if significant differences exist in an ANOVA you would consult

a. the mode.
b. a table for t values.
c. a table for F values.
d. thechi-square.

Answer 30

A table for F values.

Question 31

Which level of significance would best rule out chance factors?

a. .05
b. .01
c. .2
d. .001

Answer 31

.001

Question 32

When a researcher uses correlation, then there is no direct manipulation of the IV. A researcher might ask, for example, how IQ correlates with the incidence of panic disorder. Again, nothing is manipulated; just measured. In cases such as this a correlation coefficient will reveal

a. the relationship between IQ and panic disorder.
b. the probability that a significant difference exists.
c. an F test.
d. percentile rank.

Answer 32

The relationship between IQ and panic disorder.

Question 33

If data indicate that students who study a lot get very high scores on state counselor licensing exams, then the correlation between study time and LPC exam scores would be

a. positive.
b. negative.
c. 0.00.
d. impossible to ascertain.

Answer 33

Positive

Question 34

Which of the following would most likely yield a perfect correlation of 1.00?

a. IQ and salary.
b. ICD diagnosis and salary.
c. Length in inches and length in centimeters.
d. Height and weight

Answer 34

Length in inches and length in centimeters.

Question 35

A good guess would be that if you would correlate the length of CACREP graduates’ baby toes with their CPCE scores the result would be

a. close to 0.00.
b. close to a perfect 1.00.
c. close to a perfect negative correlation of -1.00.
d. be about +.70

Answer 35

Close to 0.00.

There is an absence of association here because as one variable changes the other variable varies randomly. The variation of one variable is most likely totally unrelated to the variation of the
other.

Question 36

Dr. X discovered that the correlation between therapists who hold NCC status and therapists who practice systematic desensitization is .90. A student who perused Dr. X’s research told his fellow students that Dr. X had discovered that attaining NCC status causes therapists to become behaviorally oriented.
The student is incorrect because

a. systematic desensitization is clearly not a behavioral strategy.
b. this can only be determined via a histogram.
c. the study suffers from longitudinal and maturational
effects.
d. correlation does not imply causal.

Answer 36

Correlation does not imply causal.

Correlation does not mean causal! Correlational research is quasi-experimental, and hence, it does not yield cause–effect data.

Question 37

Behaviorists often utilize N = 1, which is called intensive experimental design. The first step in this approach would be to

a. consult a random number table.
b. decide on a nonparametric statistical test.
c. take a baseline measure.
d. compute the range.

Answer 37

Compute the range.

Question 38

In a new study the clients do not know whether they are receiving an experimental treatment for depression or whether they are simply part of the control group. This is, nevertheless, known to the researcher. Thus, this is a

a. double-blind study.
b. single-blind study.
c. baseline for an intensive N = 1 design.
d. participant observer model.

Answer 38

Single-blind study.

In the single-blind study the subject would not know whether he or she is a member of the control group or the experimental group. This strategy helps eliminate “demand characteristics” which are cues or features of a study which suggest a desired outcome.

Question 39

A large study at a major university gave an experimental group of clients a new type of therapy that was intended to ameliorate test anxiety. The control group did not receive the new therapy. Neither the clients nor the researchers knew which students received the new treatment. This was a

a. double-blind study.
b. single-blind study.
c. typical AB design.
d. case of correlational research.

Answer 39

Double-blind study.

Question 40

Experimental is to cause and effect as correlational is to

a. blind study.
b. double-blind study.
c. N = 1 design.
d. degree of relationship.

Answer 40

Degree of relationship.

Question 41

In a normal curve the mean, the median, and the mode all fall precisely in the middle of the curve. From a graphical standpoint the so-called normal or Gaussian curve (named after the astronomer/mathematician K. F. Gauss) looks like

a. a symmetrical bell.
b. the top half of a bowling ball.
c. the top half of a hot dog.
d. a mountain which is leaning toward the left.

Answer 41

A symmetrical bell.

Question 42

The most common measures of central tendency are the mean, the median, and the mode. The mode is

a. the most frequently occurring score and the least-important measure of central tendency.
b. always 10% less than the mean.
c. the arithmetic average.
d. the middle score in the distribution of scores.

Answer 42

The most frequently occurring score and the least-important measure of central tendency.

Question 43

A bimodal distribution has two modes (i.e., most frequently
occurring scores). Graphically, this looks roughly like

a. a symmetrical bell-shaped curve.
b. a camel’s back with two humps.
c. the top half of a bowling ball.
d. a mountain which is leaning toward the left.

Answer 43

A camel’s back with two humps.

Question 44

In a basic curve or so-called frequency polygon the point of maximum concentration is the

a. mean.
b. median.
c. mode.
d. range.

Answer 44

Mode.

Question 45

The most useful measure of central tendency is the

a. mean, often abbreviated by an X with a bar over it.
b. median, often abbreviated by Md. or Mdn.
c. mode, often abbreviated by Mo.
d. point of maximum concentration.

Answer 45

Mean, often abbreviated by an X with a bar over it.

Question 46

In a career counseling session an electrical engineer mentions three jobs he has held. The first paid $10 per hour, the second paid $30 per hour, and the third paid a higher rate of $50 per hour. The counselor responds that the client is averaging $30 per hour. The counselor is using

a. a Pearson Product-Moment Correlation coefficient.
b. a factorial design.
c. the harmonic mean.
d. the mean.

Answer 46

The mean.

Question 47

From a mathematical standpoint, the mean is merely the sum of the scores divided by the number of scores. The mean is misleading when

a. the distribution is skewed.
b. the distribution has no extreme scores.
c. there are extreme scores.
d. a and c.

Answer 47

A and C.

Question 48

When a distribution of scores is not distributed normally,
statisticians call it

a. Gauss’s curve.
b. a symmetrical bell-shaped curve.
c. a skewed distribution.
d. an invalid distribution.

Answer 48

A skewed distribution.

Question 49

The median is

a. the middle score when the data are arranged from highest to lowest.
b. the arithmetic average.
c. the most-frequent value obtained.
d. never more useful than the mean.

Answer 49

The middle score when the data are arranged from highest to lowest.

Question 50

In a new experiment, a counselor educator wants to ferret out the effects of more than one IV. She will use a ________ design.

a. Pearson product-Momentr.
b. Spearman rank order rho
c. factorial
d. Solomon four-group

Answer 50

Factorial

Question 51

Regardless of the shape, the ________ will always be the high point when a distribution is displayed graphically.

a. degrees of freedom (df)
b. mean
c. median
d. mode

Answer 51

Mode.

The mode will be highest because it is the point where the most frequently occurring score falls.

Question 52

A group of first-semester graduate students in counseling took an experimental counseling exam that was much more difficult than the NCE. All of the students scored very low. A distribution of their scores would

a. always be a bimodal distribution.
b. be positively skewed.
c. be negatively skewed.
d. produce a curve with a long tail to the left side of the graph.

Answer 52

Be positively skewed.

Try to imagine this in your mind or roughly graph it on scratch paper. Most of the scores would fall on the left or the low side of the distribution. Graphically then, the “tail” of the distribution would point to the right or the positive side. Memory device: The tail indicates whether the distribution is positively or negatively skewed

Question 53

Nine of the world’s finest counselor educators are given an elementary exam on counseling theory. Needless to say, all of them scored extremely high. The distribution of scores would most likely be

a. a bell-shaped curve.
b. positively skewed.
c. negatively skewed.
d. indicative that more information would be necessary.

Answer 53

Negatively skewed.

Since high scores pack the right side of the distribution, this gives you a long tail that points to the left, which indicates a negative skew. The tail points you in the direction of the correct answer!

Question 54

Billy received an 82 on his college math final. This is Billy’s raw score on the test. A raw score simply refers to the number of items correctly answered. A raw score is expressed in the units by which it was originally obtained. The raw score is not altered mathematically. Billy’s raw score indicates that

a. he is roughly a B student.
b. he answered 82% correctly.
c. his percentile rank is 82.
d. more information is obviously necessary.

Answer 54

More information is obviously necessary.

Raw data is like a raw piece of meat; it is uncooked and nothing has been done to it.

Question 55

A distribution with class intervals can be graphically displayed via a bar graph also called a

a. histogram.
b. sociogram.
c. genogram.
d. genus.

Answer 55

Histogram.

Question 56

When a horizontal line is drawn under a frequency distribution
it is known as

a. mesokurtic.
b. the y axis.
c. the ordinate.
d. the x axis.

Answer 56

The x axis.

Question 57

The x axis is used to plot the IV scores. The x axis could also be called the _______ on your exam.

a. y axis
b. abscissa
c. DV
d. vertical axis

Answer 57

Abscissa

Question 58

The y axis is used to plot the frequency of the DVs. The y axis could also be called the ______ on your exam.

a. ordinate
b. abscissa
c. IV
d. horizontal axis

Answer 58

Ordinate

Question 59

If a distribution is bimodal, then there is a good chance that

a. the curve will be normal.
b. the curve will be shaped like a symmetrical bell.
c. the researcher is working with two distinct populations.
d. the research is useless in the field of counseling.

Answer 59

The researcher is working with two distinct populations.

Question 60

If an experiment can be replicated by others with almost identical findings, then the experiment is

a. impacted by the observer effect.
b. said to be a naturalistic observation.
c. the result of ethological observation.
d. said to be reliable.

Answer 60

Said to be reliable.