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AQA A level Sociology > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

What is meant by research?

A

The systematic study of people, institutions or social phenomena.

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2
Q

What is primary data?

A

Information which did not exist before the research began, it is carried out by the researcher.

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3
Q

What is secondary data?

A

Information which already exists.

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4
Q

What is quantitative data?

A

Numerical data

It is useful because it is less susceptible to bias and is rereliable.

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5
Q

What is qualitative data?

A

Descriptive data from observations, quotes from interviews and written sources.

It is useful because it provides detailed data about societal life.

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6
Q

What is validity?

A

When data presents a true and accurate description or measurement.

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7
Q

What is reliability?

A

When different researchers using the same methods and obtain the same results; it refers to the consistency of the test being used in the research.

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8
Q

What is the triangulation method?

A

Using more than one method to improve the validity of the study.

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9
Q

What is informed consent?

A

Revealing the true aims of the study and telling participants what is actually going to happen so participants can consent.

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10
Q

What is deception?

A

Withholding information from participants or giving them false information.

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11
Q

What is protection from physical and psychological harm?

A

The idea that nothing should happen to the participants during the research which causes harm unless the harm is no greater than what they would experience in ordinary life.

This may be difficult because the outcomes of some experiments cannot be predicted.

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12
Q

What is confidentiality?

A

Although it is difficult to protect confidentiality because the researcher wishes to publish the findings, the Data Protection Act makes confidentiality a legal right.

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13
Q

What is ethnography?

A

The study of the way of life of a group of people in order to see the world from their perspective.

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14
Q

What is generalisation?

A

A statement based on a relatively small group which is then applied to a larger group.

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15
Q

What is gaining entry?

A

Participant observation cannot work unless the researcher gains entry into the group and acceptance from its members.

For example, for his research in the USA into casual sex between men in public toilets - Laud Humphreys acted as a look out to gain trust of those he observed.

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16
Q

What is a representative group?

A

A smaller group which has the same characteristics as a larger group.

If a researcher aims to generalise, then they must select a sample which is representative of the group as a whole.

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17
Q

What is overt research?

A

Open research where the researcher’s true identity and the purpose of the research is revealed to the participants.

The problems associated are the lack of trust, the participants see the researcher as a threat as what happened on Venkatesh’s first day with the black kings in chicago, and the Hawthorne effect

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18
Q

What is covert research?

A

Hidden research where the researcher’s true identity and the purpose of the research is hidden from the participants.

Unethical: It does not give those being observed the opportunity to give informed consent to participating in the research.

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19
Q

What is hypothesis?

A

An educated guess of what you think you will discover in your study.

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20
Q

What is the Hawthorne effect?

A

When a person changes their behaviour because they know they are being watched.

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21
Q

What is the hypothetico deductive method?

A
  1. Choose a topic to investigate.
  2. Gather information.
  3. Develop a hypothesis.
  4. Decide on methodology and sampling frame.
  5. Conduct pilot study.
  6. Conduct research.
  7. Analyse data.
  8. Conclude.
  9. Evaluate.
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22
Q

What is pilot study?

A

A small scale study to check on the suitability of the methods used in the main study.

make sure that the questions can be understood by and make sense to the research participants.

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23
Q

What is a key informant?

A

A member of the group that is being studied who provides information and often sponsors the researcher but this can cause problems if the informants behaviour changes.

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24
Q

Why do sociologists try to be objective when conducting their research?

A

To prevent their values, political views, religious beliefs and prejudices from influencing their research.

But this may not be possible because values affect the whole research process from the choice of topic to the interpretation of data to final conclusions.

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25
Q

What are the factors that affect the choice of a research topic?

A

personal interests/political beliefs

time

access to participants/information

funding

data type required

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26
Q

What are the research considerations?

A

Access and gatekeepers - Researchers must consider the availability and accessibility of data sources relevant to their research.

Personal characteristics such as age, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and education level may influence the selection criteria to ensure that the sample is representative of the population of interest

Ethics - Researchers have a responsibility to minimise harm and ensure that participants are treated with respect and fairness throughout the research process.

Language - Researchers conducting cross-cultural studies must consider linguistic factors to avoid misinterpretation and ensure the validity and reliability of their findings.

Peer group pressures may exert significant influence on individuals’ attitudes, beliefs, behaviours, and decision-making processes.

Time - A large amount of time allows for more in-depth exploration of topics, perspectives, and sources which leads to more comprehensive research.

Authority structures - Researchers need to consider how authority is exercised and how it influences the behaviors and interactions of individuals and groups.

Vulnerability - Research involving vulnerable populations, such as children, raises ethical concerns regarding the protection of their rights, and ensuring their well-being throughout the research process.

Impression management - Researcher or participants may subconsciously slant responses to create a more positive impression, compromising objectivity.

Detachment and objectivity - By approaching research with impartiality, researchers can strive to ensure that their personal beliefs, preferences, or preconceptions do not unduly influence the research process or outcomes.

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27
Q

What are the ethical strengths/limitation?

A

Confidentiality

Informed consent

Protection from harm

legalities

Privacy

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28
Q

What are the practical strengths/limitation?

A

Time

Cost

Ease

Researcher presence

Flexibility

Access

Researcher skills

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29
Q

What are the theoretical strengths/limitation?

A

Data type

Reliability

Validity

Generalisability

Representativeness

Objectivity

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30
Q

Describe interpretivism.

A

An approach that emphasises the importance of understanding social phenomena through the subjective meanings and interpretations that individuals attach to them

Prioritises verstehen which refers to the empathetic understanding of social actions and behaviors of people.

Prefer qualitative data, such as interviews, participant observation, and textual analysis, to gather detailed data that capture social meanings and interpretations.

31
Q

Describe Positivism.

A

An approach that emphasises the application of scientific principles to the study of society.

Positivists strive for objectivity in their research, aiming to separate their personal biases and values from the scientific study of society.

Prefer quantitative data e.g. structured questionnaires/interviews and official statistics, as it provides precise and objective understanding of social reality.

32
Q

What are the two main types of questions?

A

Closed- The range of responses is fixed by the researcher.

Open- There is no limit on responses.

33
Q

What is operationalisation?

A

Translating concepts in questionnaires into a form which can be measured.

34
Q

What is coding?

A

Classifying answers into various categories.

35
Q

Why is it difficult to code open question answers?

A

Sometimes written answers don’t fit into any category provided.

36
Q

What is the response rate?

A

The percentage of the sample that participates in the research.

A low response rate results in an unrepresentative sample.

37
Q

What is participant observation?

A

When the researcher joins the group they are observing.

It gives the researcher the opportunity to observe people in their normal setting as opposed to the more artificial contexts of the laboratory or in an interview.

Whyte agrees that it provides insights and knowledge which may not be available from other research methods.

38
Q

What is an example where participant observation was used?

A

John Howard Griffin dyed his skin black in order to discover what it was like to live as a black man in the southern states of America in the late 1950s.

39
Q

What are the advantages of Observations?

A

(P) Flexible: It allows the researcher to enter the situation with an open mind and as new situations are encountered they can be followed up.

(T) Valid: It provides a true picture of the meanings which shape the participant’s behaviour.

(T) Data type: takes place in natural settings so respondents act more naturally, resulting in detailed qualitative data.

(E) Informed consent: it allows respondents to speak for themselves in overt observations.

40
Q

What are the disadvantages of Observations?

A

(P) Access: researcher may not be able to gain entry in the participant group.

(P) Time: may take a long to gain entry and build trust so the respondents can act natural.

(E) Informed consent: in covert observations, respondents are deceived.

(T) Reliability: cannot be replicated because gaining entry depends on researcher’s personal characteristics.

41
Q

What are structured interviews?

A

Where a list of closed questions are read in the same order to all participants.

42
Q

What is an example where a structured interview is used?

A

Young and Willmott (1962) on the importance of the extended family was based on structured interviews

43
Q

What are the advantages of structured interviews?

A

(P) Ease: All respondents answer the same questions so that answers can be easily compared and trends observed.

(P) Cost: cheap to conduct.

(T) Reliability: can be easily repeated to check the reliability of the data.

(E) Informed consent: participants can agree to participate in the interview.

44
Q

What are the disadvantages of structured interviews?

A

(T) Validity detail: Participants have little opportunity to discuss or qualify their answers.

(T) Representative: Because the interviewers have set questions based on their priorities, participants have no opportunity to develop issues which reflect their concerns.

(E) Privacy: The respondent may not want to answer personal or sensitive questions in front of the interviewer.

(P) Time: may require a large amount of time to interview a large sample.

45
Q

What are semi structured interviews?

A

Where the interview has set questions to ask but allows the participant to develop their answers.

46
Q

What are unstructured interviews?

A

When the interviewer has few if any present preset questions, but usually have a certain type of topics they wish to cover with a mixture of open and closed questions.

47
Q

What is an example where unstructured interviews were used?

A

During face-to-face job interviews, the hiring team may use an unstructured interview as its method of inquiry and evaluation of a candidate.

48
Q

What are the advantages of unstructured interviews?

A

(P) Flexibility: the interviewer has the flexibility to change the direction of an interview if it seems to be leading nowhere.

(E) Informed consent: participants can agree to participate in the interview.

(T) Validity: There is a greater chance for the participant to express their own viewpoint which can lead to a new insight for the researcher.

(T) Data type: Participants will provide in depth Qualitative data when expressing themselves.

49
Q

What are the disadvantages of unstructured interview?

A

(T) Validity: Because relationships can develop between the interviewer and participant, it can lead to interviewer bias.

(T) Validity: Participants may emphasise socially desirable aspects of their attitudes, which can reduce validity of data.

(P) Time: May take a relatively long time to conduct.

(E) Confidentiality: The in-depth data produced may fall into the wrong hands.

50
Q

What are e-mail interviews?

A

Interviews where the answers and questions are typed.

51
Q

What are the advantages of e-mail interviews?

A

(T) Data type: Participants will provide in depth Qualitative data when expressing themselves.

(P) Cost: Cost effective and efficient.

(E) Privacy: Participants may find it easier to communicate in the privacy of their own home about sensitive issues.

52
Q

What are the disadvantages of e-mail interviews?

A

(T) Validity detail: Body language, emotions and facial expressions are not available in text based form.

(P) Time: May be time consuming, so participants may be demotivated to write in depth answers.

(E) Confidentiality: The in-depth data produced may fall into the wrong hands.

53
Q

What are the four types of questionnaires?

A

Factual surveys = gathers information about features of peoples lives

Attitude survey = asks people about their views on certain issues

Social Psychological surveys = asks people about their thoughts to group them, for example, personality types.

Explanatory surveys = to test hypothesis, which suggests a relationship exists between two factors.

54
Q

How can questionnaires be distributed?

A

Respondents’ self completion

Delivery by post

Responses by telephone

Carries by the researcher.

55
Q

What are the advantages of questionnaires?

A

(P) Access: The researcher can contact large numbers of participants quickly and easily.

(E) Confidentiality: Can be made anonymous to explore potentially embarrassing areas which may increase the amount of respondents.

(T) Reliability: When the research is repeated, it is easy to use the exact same questionnaire meaning the respondents can give the same responses.

(T) Objectivity: Unbiased method as the sociologist’s personal involvement with respondents is kept to a minimum which will produce qualitative data.

56
Q

What are the disadvantages of questionnaires?

A

(P) Researcher presence: When the researcher is not present, it can be difficult to know whether a respondent has understood a question properly.

(T) Representative: With postal questionnaires, the researcher can never be certain that the person whom the questionnaire is sent to fills it in.

(T) Validity Researcher effect: May suffer from imposition problems because the researcher may impose their own view on the answers people give, so limiting their responses.

57
Q

What are experiments?

A

A scientific method of investigation to test a hypothesis.

58
Q

What is an independent variable?

A

The variable that is manipulated.

59
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A

The variable that is measured.

60
Q

What are lab experiments?

A

Experiments conducted under controlled conditions where the researcher directly manipulates the independent variable to see if there is an impact on the dependent variable.

61
Q

What are field experiments?

A

An experiment conducted in a natural or ordinary environment outside the lab.

62
Q

What are the advantages of lab experiments?

A

(P) Take place in one setting so researchers can conduct research like any other day-job

(E) Informed consent can be obtained as participants will know if they are being studied.

(T) Can control, manipulate, and isolate variables to see if there is an effect.

63
Q

What are the disadvantages of lab experiments?

A

(P) Small samples mean you will need to conduct consecutive experiments on small groups if you want large samples

(E) Deception is often used so participants don’t know the nature of the study.

(T) Demand characteristics can occur where participants know the nature of the study and act accordingly in order to see a positive result.

64
Q

What are the advantages of field experiments?

A

(T) The realistic setting means participants will act more natural because it is in response to a normal situation.

(P) Larger scale settings – you can do field experiments in schools or workplaces, so you can observe large scale social processes.

(E) Informed consent can be obtained as participants will know if they are being studied.

65
Q

What are the disadvantages of field experiments?

A

(T) It is not possible to control variables as closely as with laboratory experiments

(E) may be unable to protect participants from harm - deception.

(P) access: Schools and workplaces might be reluctant to allow researchers in.

66
Q

What are official statistics?

A

Numerical information collected and used to make decisions about society.

67
Q

What are the advantages of official statistics?

A

(T) Data type: historical comparisons can be made over time.

(P) Access: Office for National Statistics allows easy access and navigate.

(E) Collected in the ‘national interest’ so avoids biases of private research.

68
Q

What are the disadvantages of official statistics?

A

(T) Validity: may lack validity e.g. crime statistics.

(P) Cost: expensive to collect data.

69
Q

What is sampling?

A

Selecting a part of the population.

Researchers need to make the sample representative of the research group to provide a basis for generalisation.

70
Q

What is a sampling unit?

A

A member of the research population.

71
Q

What is a sampling frame?

A

A list of members of the research population.

For example, the electoral register.

72
Q

What are the types of samples?

A

Random samples: Gives every member of the sampling frame an equal chance of being selected - every name given a number then a list of numbers are randomly chosen. ~ may be unrepresentative.

Stratified random sampling: the sampling frame is divided into groups that reflect the general population e.g. age, gender. ~ more representative.

Quota sampling: when the researcher fills their quota from the first available bodies.

Snowballs samples: where members of the sample select each other.

Volunteer samples: made up of people who volunteer to participate.

73
Q

What is longitudinal study?

A

A longitudinal study involves the examination of the same subject(s) and/or variable(s) over an extended period of time.

It will start with a single research session with a method, then the same research design is conducted at fixed intervals over the next few years.

74
Q

What are the two types of longitudinal study?

A

Panel study involves studying the same group of people on two or more occasions.

Cohort studies, a whole cohort of people who share certain characteristics (for example, their date of birth or ethnicity) is selected.

AQA A level Sociology (7 decks)

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